Perceived attachment history predicts psychedelic experiences: A naturalistic study

Psychedelic research has documented enduring, meaningful subjective effects—notably mystical-type experiences—that can catalyse psychological change, yet almost no work has examined how developmental factors shape these effects. The authors note an evidence gap given widespread claims that psychedelics can heal childhood trauma or "attachment wounds," assertions that lack empirical support. They introduce attachment theory as a relevant developmental framework: early caregiving shapes internal working models and adult attachment orientations (anxiety and avoidance), which in turn relate to emotion regulation and responses to stress. Cherniak and colleagues set out to examine whether attachment-related variables predict phenomenology during naturalistic psychedelic experiences and whether psychedelic phenomenology moderates links between perceived attachment history and current adult attachment insecurity. They tentatively hypothesised, based on a compensation perspective from attachment–religion research, that a perceived insecure attachment history and adult attachment anxiety would be associated with more mystical experiences, that avoidance would be associated with more challenging experiences, and that healing aspects of psychedelic phenomenology (for example, mystical experience, emotional breakthrough, sensed presence) might attenuate the association between an insecure attachment history and present attachment insecurity. The study focused on retrospective reports of participants' most memorable naturalistic psychedelic experiences.

The study used an online convenience sample recruited via social media groups oriented to Jewish participants. Eligibility criteria required participants to be at least 18 years old, fluent in English or Hebrew, self-identify as Jewish, and have used a psychedelic at least once. A total of 185 respondents completed the survey and were paid US$5; ethical approval was obtained (Institution1 IRB #2021142). Participants' mean age at survey was 39.4 years (range 19–79), mean age at the reported memorable experience was 29 years (range 16–66), and on average 11.2 years had elapsed since that experience. Most reported use of psilocybin or LSD for their memorable experience; a minority reported ayahuasca, DMT or ketamine. The sample included a high prevalence of self‑reported lifetime mental health diagnoses and psychotropic medication use. Attachment-related measures comprised the Insecure Attachment History measure (IAH) assessing recollections of parenting for each parent, aggregated into a single perceived insecure attachment history score (scale reliability α = 0.81, ω = 0.86), and the 12‑item Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) scale measuring adult attachment anxiety and avoidance (reliabilities for subscales α = 0.81–0.84, ω = 0.86–0.89). Psychedelic phenomenology was measured retrospectively for participants' most memorable experience using established instruments: the 30‑item Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ, α = 0.95), the 26‑item Challenging Experiences Questionnaire (CEQ, α = 0.92), a three‑item sensed presence scale (α = 0.90), the six‑item Emotional Breakthrough Inventory (EBI, α = 0.90), and the eight‑item Ego Dissolution Inventory (EDI, α = 0.90). The authors report that the phenomenology scales were intercorrelated to modest or strong degrees. Analytically, the investigators computed Pearson correlations between attachment variables (perceived insecure attachment history, ECR anxiety, ECR avoidance) and each psychedelic phenomenology measure. To test whether phenomenology moderated the association between perceived insecure attachment history and adult attachment insecurity, they ran a series of hierarchical regression models predicting ECR anxiety. Predictor variables were centred and interaction terms computed; each model entered attachment history in block 1, added one phenomenology variable in block 2, and added the interaction in block 3. No moderation analyses were run for ECR avoidance because it was unrelated to perceived attachment history.

Perceived insecure attachment history was positively associated with all psychedelic phenomenology measures studied. Reported Pearson correlations were: mystical experiences r = 0.24 (p < 0.01), emotional breakthrough r = 0.26 (p < 0.01), ego dissolution r = 0.32 (p < 0.01), sensed presence r = 0.25 (p < 0.01), and challenging experiences r = 0.19 (p < 0.05). By contrast, adult attachment orientations (ECR anxiety and avoidance) were largely unrelated to these phenomenology measures. The lone exception was a small inverse correlation between ECR avoidance and mystical experience (r = −0.19, p < 0.05). No significant associations were observed between ECR anxiety and the phenomenology variables. In the moderation analyses, none of the tested facets of psychedelic phenomenology attenuated the association between perceived insecure attachment history and current attachment anxiety. The only significant interaction emerged for mystical experiences: mystical experience scores augmented rather than reduced the link between perceived insecure attachment history and ECR anxiety (interaction β = 0.21, p = 0.021; ΔR2 = 0.04; reported model F(3,121) = 5.83, p < 0.001). The remaining interaction terms were non‑significant, with reported β coefficients in the range 0.06–0.18 (n.s.). The authors note that the phenomenology measures were interrelated, but specific intercorrelation coefficients are presented in a table not reproduced here.

Cherniak and colleagues interpret their findings as indicating that recollections of insensitive caregiving in childhood predispose individuals to more intense phenomenological responses during naturalistic psychedelic experiences, consistent with a compensation hypothesis from attachment–religion research. Participants who remembered more insensitive parenting reported higher levels of mystical and challenging experiences, emotional breakthrough, ego dissolution, and sensed presence. In contrast, current adult attachment orientations (ECR anxiety and avoidance) were not robust predictors of psychedelic phenomenology in this naturalistic sample. Contrary to the authors' tentative expectation that healing aspects of psychedelic phenomenology might weaken the link between perceived insecure attachment history and present attachment insecurity ("earned security"), the data provided no evidence of attenuation. If anything, mystical experiences appeared to magnify the association between recollected insensitive caregiving and adult attachment anxiety. The authors caution that, in uncontrolled naturalistic contexts and absent therapeutic support, intense psychedelic experiences may not produce increased attachment security and could conceivably be destabilising for individuals with prior attachment-related vulnerabilities. The paper acknowledges multiple limitations that constrain inferences: its cross‑sectional design and exclusive reliance on retrospective self‑report measures preclude causal claims and raise the possibility of shared method variance or memory effects. The convenience sample was restricted to Jewish respondents recruited online and had a high prevalence of mental health diagnoses and other substance use, limiting generalisability. Participants' experiences varied widely in substance, setting, intention and time elapsed since the event, factors known to influence psychedelic outcomes. The authors also note the possibility that asking participants about their caregiving in the same survey context as in‑depth questions about psychedelic experiences could have influenced recollections. For future research they recommend pre–post–follow‑up designs, randomised controlled trials in clinical settings, the use of independent attachment measures (for example, the Adult Attachment Interview or secure base script assessments), mixed‑methods investigations of spiritual experiences, and closer examination of therapeutic set, setting and interventions that specifically target attachment processes.

The authors conclude that perceived insecure attachment history with parents may predispose people to more intense phenomenological experiences during psychedelic use—including mystical and challenging experiences, emotional breakthroughs, ego dissolution, and sensed presence—but that these phenomenological effects, at least in uncontrolled naturalistic contexts, do not appear sufficient to increase attachment security in adulthood.