In adults with treatment-resistant depression receiving intravenous ketamine, clinically significant childhood sexual and physical abuse and greater cumulative maltreatment predicted larger reductions in depressive symptoms after single and repeated infusions and higher remission rates after repeated treatment. This suggests ketamine may be especially effective in TRD patients with high childhood trauma burden, perhaps by blocking trauma-associated behavioural sensitisation, in contrast to poorer responses seen with conventional antidepressants.
Childhood maltreatment is associated with a poor treatment response to conventional antidepressants and increased risk for treatment-resistant depression (TRD). The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NDMAR) antagonist ketamine has been shown to rapidly improve symptoms of depression in patients with TRD. It is unknown if childhood maltreatment could influence ketamine’s treatment response. We examined the relationship between childhood maltreatment using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and treatment response using the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms–Self Report (QIDS-SR) in TRD patients receiving intravenous ketamine at a community outpatient clinic. We evaluated treatment response after a single infusion (n = 115) and a course of repeated infusions (n = 63). Repeated measures general linear models and Bayes factor (BF) showed significant decreases in QIDS-SR after the first and second infusions, which plateaued after the third infusion. Clinically significant childhood sexual abuse, physical abuse, and cumulative clinically significant maltreatment on multiple domains (maltreatment load) were associated with better treatment response to a single and repeated infusions. After repeated infusions, higher load was also associated with a higher remission rate. In contrast to conventional antidepressants, ketamine could be more effective in TRD patients with more childhood trauma burden, perhaps due to ketamine’s proposed ability to block trauma-associated behavioral sensitization.
Major depressive disorder and bipolar depression affect a substantial proportion of the population and an estimated 35% of people with depression meet criteria for treatment-resistant depression (TRD), commonly defined as less than 50% improvement after at least two different antidepressant trials. TRD is associated with worse quality of life and higher mortality, so identifying predictors of response to alternative interventions is clinically important. Intravenous ketamine, an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonist, produces rapid antidepressant effects in TRD, possibly via glutamate-mediated activation of AMPA receptors, increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor and mTOR signalling, but it is unknown whether childhood maltreatment influences ketamine response. Previous research has associated childhood maltreatment with poorer outcomes on conventional antidepressants, and there is emerging evidence for NMDAR antagonists in trauma-related disorders such as PTSD, but no clear data on how early-life maltreatment affects ketamine efficacy in TRD. O'brien and colleagues set out to examine whether self-reported childhood maltreatment, measured with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), predicts antidepressant response to IV ketamine in a naturalistic outpatient sample. They tested two related hypotheses: first, that a history of childhood maltreatment would predict an unfavourable response to an acute single infusion and to a course of repeated infusions; and second, that greater maltreatment burden (a higher number of clinically significant maltreatment domains, termed maltreatment load) would be associated with poorer ketamine effectiveness.
Papers cited by this study that are also in Blossom
Abdallah, C. G., Charney, D. S., Duman, R. S. et al. · Neuron (2019)
Murrough, J. W., Iosifescu, D. V., Chang, L. C. et al. · American Journal of Psychiatry (2013)
Singh, J. B., Fedgchin, M., Daly, E. J. et al. · American Journal of Psychiatry (2016)
Romeo, B., Choucha, W., Fossati, P. et al. · Psychiatry Research (2015)
This was a naturalistic, clinic-based observational study using de-identified data collected during routine care at a ketamine treatment centre between April 2016 and April 2019 under an IRB waiver. Adults presenting with moderate to very severe depressive symptoms (baseline QIDS-SR > 10) who had failed at least one antidepressant trial were eligible for inclusion in analyses. Two analytic samples were defined: a single-infusion sample (n = 115) assessed 3 or 7 days after one IV ketamine infusion, and a repeated-infusion subsample (n = 63) who completed at least four infusions on a fixed twice-weekly (every 3–4 days) or weekly (every 7 days) schedule. Depressive symptoms were measured with the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology—Self Report (QIDS-SR) at baseline and at post-infusion visits. Childhood maltreatment before age 18 was assessed with the 28-item Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), which yields five subscales (sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect) and a total score. The investigators derived a "maltreatment load" (0–5) representing the number of CTQ subscales for which a patient met established cut-offs for clinically significant maltreatment (sexual, physical abuse and physical neglect cut-off ≥ 8; emotional abuse ≥ 10; emotional neglect ≥ 15). IV ketamine was administered in a monitored clinical setting by anaesthesia staff; dosing was weight-based and delivered over 40 minutes to 2 hours. Mean per-infusion doses reported were approximately 0.62 mg/kg in the single-infusion group and 0.70 mg/kg in the repeated-infusion group. The primary outcomes were change in QIDS-SR (baseline minus post-infusion) for single and repeated infusions, with response defined as ≥ 50% reduction in QIDS-SR and remission defined as QIDS-SR < 6. Statistical analyses used repeated measures general linear models (RM-GLM) to test time effects and interactions with CTQ variables. CTQ predictors were entered as continuous or dichotomous variables based on initial correlations with QIDS-SR change. Demographic (age, gender), treatment (ketamine dose, timing of post-infusion assessment, treatment schedule), diagnosis and concurrent psychotropic medication were tested as potential moderators. Correlational analyses and chi-square or t-tests evaluated associations with response and remission. Bayes factors (BF) were reported alongside p-values to express the strength of evidence for alternative versus null hypotheses. An intent-to-treat analysis using last-observation-carried-forward was also performed to compare with per-protocol findings.
Single-infusion sample (n = 115): RM-GLM showed a large and statistically significant reduction in depressive symptoms after one ketamine infusion: mean QIDS-SR fell from 18.63 ± 3.70 at baseline to 13.12 ± 5.13 post-infusion (F(1,114) = 175.70, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.61), with Bayes factor indicating very strong evidence (BF > 1.27 × 10+10). Nineteen percent (n = 22) met response criteria (≥ 50% reduction) and 7% (n = 8) achieved remission (QIDS-SR < 6) after a single infusion. Correlational analyses linked greater maltreatment burden to larger acute symptom reductions: QIDS-SR change correlated with maltreatment load (r = 0.31, p < 0.001; BF10 = 29.07), sexual abuse (SA; r = 0.29, p = 0.001) and physical neglect (PN; r = 0.24, p = 0.01), and with CTQ total and physical abuse (PA) at lower strength. RM-GLM including load showed a significant time × load interaction (F(1,109) = 3.78, p = 0.003, η2p = 0.148; BF10 = 6.37). Follow-up comparisons on change scores indicated patients with maltreatment load of 5 (clinically significant on all five CTQ domains) had larger reductions in QIDS-SR than those with loads 0, 1 or 3 (t > 3.18, p < 0.03). A subscale analysis showed a significant time × SA interaction (F(1,112) = 5.37, p = 0.022); the extracted text does not report the precise mean decrease for the SA ≥ 8 subgroup. Repeated-infusion sample (per-protocol, n = 63): Across five visits (baseline plus four post-baseline assessments) RM-GLM showed a significant time effect (F = 97.60, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.61; BF10 ≈ 1.77 × 10+46). Post-hoc comparisons indicated significant reductions after the first and second infusions, with smaller or non-significant additional change after the third and fourth infusions. After four infusions, 46.03% (n = 29) were responders and 23.81% (n = 15) were in remission. In the repeated-infusion analyses, QIDS-SR change correlated strongly with maltreatment load (r = 0.427, p < 0.001; BF10 = 59.89) and with PN (r = 0.390, p = 0.002), total CTQ, PA and SA; emotional abuse and neglect did not correlate significantly. RM-GLM with load revealed a significant time × load interaction (F[4,248] = 2.40, p = 0.003, η2p = 0.17; BF = 6.57). Examination of change scores showed larger mean QIDS-SR reductions for load 4 (14.67 ± 4.41) and load 5 (15.40 ± 2.30) compared with load 1 (7.38 ± 4.87) and a trend versus load 0 (8.0 ± 4.85). Subscale analyses identified a significant time × PA interaction (F[4,236] = 5.83, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.090) and a time × PN interaction that approached significance (p = 0.052). A model including CTQ total score also yielded a significant time interaction (F[4,244] = 3.08, p = 0.017). Response and remission analyses at Visit 5 found significant associations between higher maltreatment load and remission, and between physical neglect and remission; Bayes factors suggested very strong evidence for the effect of load on remission and strong evidence for PN, with moderate evidence for SA and PA. There were no consistent effects of CTQ variables on response rate. Demographic and treatment variables (age, gender, ketamine dose, schedule), diagnosis and concurrent medications had minimal or inconsistent influence on the time × load interaction. Per-protocol analyses excluded patients who did not return (n = 32) or changed schedules (n = 20); intent-to-treat analyses (last-observation-carried-forward, n = 115) produced results consistent with per-protocol findings. The extraction reports that patients with clinically significant physical neglect were less likely to be excluded (X2 = 6.54, p = 0.011).
Contrary to their initial hypotheses, O'brien and colleagues report that in this naturalistic TRD sample patients with histories of childhood maltreatment not only benefited from IV ketamine but in some analyses showed greater symptom reductions and higher remission rates than those without clinically significant maltreatment. Sexual abuse was particularly associated with greater benefit after a single infusion, while physical abuse and higher maltreatment load were more clearly linked to larger improvements after repeated infusions. The investigators emphasise that maltreatment load—the number of clinically significant CTQ domains—appeared a better predictor of treatment outcome than any single subscale. The authors propose a mechanistic explanation centred on trauma-induced behavioural sensitization. They note that preclinical and clinical evidence implicates NMDAR-dependent processes in the induction and expression of sensitization to stress and that NMDAR antagonists, including ketamine, can block sensitization in animal models and reduce hyperarousal and depressive symptoms in related human conditions. From this perspective, ketamine might counteract a neurobiological expression of early-life sensitization that contributes to resistance to conventional monoaminergic antidepressants. The investigators also highlight pragmatic findings about dosing schedules: improvements were observed after the first and second infusions, with a plateau thereafter, suggesting that an initial twice-weekly schedule for two to three infusions followed by once-weekly maintenance could balance efficacy and burden. The authors acknowledge several important limitations. The sample size—particularly for the highest maltreatment-load subgroups—was modest, limiting power for some subgroup and moderator analyses. Key demographic and clinical variables such as education, socioeconomic status, family history and detailed medication histories were unavailable. The CTQ is a retrospective self-report instrument that omits other relevant early or adult traumas and may be subject to recall bias. The naturalistic clinic setting, lack of randomisation or placebo control, and concurrent psychotropic medications limit causal inference and generalisability. The authors therefore frame their conclusions cautiously and call for further research, including development of objective markers of sensitization that might guide physiologically informed treatment choices.
The study authors conclude that, in this naturalistic TRD cohort, patients with high self-reported childhood maltreatment showed at least comparable and in some analyses greater antidepressant benefit from IV ketamine than patients with low or no maltreatment. They suggest that ketamine could be considered earlier than additional conventional antidepressant augmentation strategies for TRD patients with substantial childhood trauma burden. The authors also propose that an initial course of two to three twice-weekly infusions followed by once-weekly maintenance may optimise response while limiting treatment burden. They note there is no established cut-off for total CTQ score to guide clinical decisions and that their findings require replication in larger, controlled studies.
Approximately 12.2% of US residents 13 years and older have a lifetime history of recurring major depressive episodes associated with major depressive disorder (MDD) or bipolar disorder (BD). An estimated 35% of depressed patients have treatment resistant depression (TRD), defined as an inadequate treatment response (<50% improvement in depression severity) to at least two different types of antidepressant medications, the majority of which target monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems. Compared to treatment responders, TRD is associated with a lower quality of life and increased mortality. It is important to identify factors that may predict response to specific interventions in order to provide timely, effective treatment. The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonist ketamine is a promising treatment option for TRD. Randomized controlled trials in patients with TRD have consistently shown favorable antidepressant responses to single and repeated subanesthetic doses of ketamine compared to saline or active placebo. Ketamine's antidepressant effect has been related to pre-and post-synaptic NMDAR blockade, enhancing prefrontaland hippocampalglutamate concentrations which activate the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR), enhancing synaptic plasticity via AMPAR-induced elevation of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)and activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. The antidepressant response is often rapid, with patients maintaining substantial gains for up to two weeks. A risk factor for TRD in adulthood is maltreatment in early life. Approximately 12.5% of US children and adolescents have been exposed to sexual abuse, physical abuse or neglect, or emotional abuse or neglect. A history of childhood maltreatment has been associated with a diminished treatment response to conventional antidepressant treatments. No information to our knowledge is available regarding the relationship between childhood maltreatment and ketamine treatment response, although there is emerging support for the efficacy of IV ketamine in reducing symptoms of PTSD in adults. In this study, we examine the influence of childhood maltreatment on ketamine treatment response after single and repeated infusions in moderate to severely depressed adults receiving treatment at an outpatient ketamine clinic. We hypothesized that a history of childhood maltreatment would predict an unfavorable treatment response to acute (single infusion) and chronic (repeated infusions) ketamine. Our secondary hypothesis was that ineffectiveness would be related to severity of burden from childhood trauma.
Tablesummarizes key demographic, treatment and clinical features of (i) patients who received a single infusion followed by a clinic visit 3-4 or 7 days later for post-infusion assessment (TPIA) (n = 115) and (ii) a subsample of the 115 patients who continued to receive at least four infusions on a twice weekly (every 3-4 days) or weekly schedule (every 7 days) with a baseline or post-infusion assessment prior to each infusion. Patients were included if they had moderate to severe levels of depression at pre-treatment baseline (operationalized as scores >10 on the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms-Self Report, QIDS-SR) irrespective of psychiatric disorder. All patients except one reported a diagnosis of major depressive or bipolar disorder; one patient reported PTSD. More than half the sample reported at least one comorbid diagnosis of PTSD, anxiety disorder or pain disorder. Concurrent psychiatric medications spanned 12 different drug classes (mean 2.2 per patient). Patients received on average 0.62 (single infusion) or 0.70 (repeated infusion) mg/kg of IV ketamine per infusion.
Repeated measures general linear models (RM-GLM) tested the effects of ketamine treatment on depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms were measured with the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Self Report (QIDS-SR). Time was included as dependent variable (baseline, post-infusion QIDS-SR). A single ketamine infusion significantly decreased QIDS-SR scores (mean ± SD; baseline 18.63 ± 3.70; post-infusion: 13.12 ± 5.13) (F(1,114) = 175.70, p < 0.001, effect size [ES] η 2 p = 0.61; BF > 1.27 × 10 +10 ). Of the 115 patients, 19% (n = 22) were responders (≥ 50% reduction of QIDS-SR score from baseline) and 7% (n = 8) achieved remission (QIDS-SR <6).
Childhood maltreatment was assessed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), which provides a total score and subscale scores for five distinct domains of childhood maltreatment: sexual abuse (SA), physical abuse (PA), physical neglect (PN), emotional abuse (EA), and emotional neglect (EN). Tablesummarizes mean CTQ total and subscale scale scores, the number and percentage of patients with clinically significant maltreatment based on recommended cut-off scores, and the number and percentage of patients with significant maltreatment across domains captured by maltreatment loads 0-5 defined as the sum of subscales that met criteria for clinical significance. Figuredisplays the density and frequency plots for CTQ scores. About two-thirds of the sample had a maltreatment load of 1 or higher.
We first examined correlations between QIDS-SR change score (baseline minus post-infusion) and CTQ measures. Change score correlated significantly with maltreatment load (r = 0.31, p < 0.001; BF 10 = 29.07), SA (r = 0.29, p = 0.001; BF 10 = 17.22), PN (r = 0.24, p = 0.01; BF 10 = 3.11), total CTQ (r = 0.24, p = 0.01; BF 10 = 2.75) and PA (r = 0.18, p = 0.05; BF 10 = 0.80), but not EA or EN (r < 0.17, p > 0.07; BF 10 < 0.57). Based on r and BF values, we tested effects of maltreatment load, and of SA and PN on treatment response using two separate RM-GLM analyses. p-values are corrected for the two RM-GLM analyses (corrected p-value < 0.025 to be significant). RM-GLM with load as grouping variables showed the effect of time, and a significant time by load interaction (F(1,109) = 3.78, p = 0.003, η 2 p = 0.148; BF 10 = 6.37) (see Appendix H for BF calculation for interactions). Separate ANOVA's for baseline and follow-up QIDS-SR revealed no significant differences between loads (F[5,109] < 1.71, p > 0.13). However, an ANOVA with QIDS-SR change score as dependent variable revealed that patients with load 5 (clinically significant on all 5 subscales) had a larger reduction in QIDS-SR scores from baseline than patients with loads 0, 1 or 3 (t > 3.18, p < 0.03; BF 10 > 5.56); differences were not significant with loads 2 or 4 (t ≈ 2.4, p > 0.18; BF 10 ≈ 2.50). Subscale RM-GLM analysis included SA and PN as continuous independent variables, showing the effect of time and a time by SA interaction (F(1,112) = 5.37, p = 0.022, η 2 p = 0.046). Testing the interaction using SA cut-off scores showed that those with SA ≥8 (n = 24) had a mean decrease in QIDS-SR of
Relationships between maltreatment and response and remission rates were examined with X 2 tests or t-tests corrected for 6 comparisons (p < 0.0083 for load and five subscales). Neither load nor CTQ subscales were related to response or remission rates after a single infusion.
Table A2 displays demographic, treatment and clinical variables divided by maltreatment load. Loads only differed on CTQ total and subscale scores. A subsequent RM-GLM was performed to determine if effects of maltreatment on treatment response remained significant after controlling for effects of demographic (age, gender) and treatment (ketamine dose, time of post-infusion assessment [TPIA]) variables. Maltreatment load was included as a continuous variable to avoid empty cells when load was included as a grouping factor. Tableprovides outcomes of that analysis, showing that the interaction remained significant after correcting p-values for four RM-GLM analyses. Outcomes of the tests examining possible moderating effects of self-reported diagnosis and of prescribed psychopharmacological treatment are provided in Table(left-hand column). Demographic, clinical and treatment variables did not affect the time by CTQ maltreatment load interaction.
Tablesummarizes demographics, treatment variables and diagnostic characteristics of 63 clinic patients who received at least four repeated ketamine infusions on a twice weekly (every 3-4 days) or weekly (every 7 days) treatment schedule. Tablesummarizes CTQ characteristics. The CONSORT chart in Appendix F displays the reason for the exclusion of 52 patients from the repeated infusion dataset.
For a per-protocol analysis using only patients who completed four infusions on a twice-or once-weekly schedule, repeated measures general linear models (RM-GLM) tested the effects of repeated ketamine infusions on depressive symptoms measured with the QIDS-SR. A RM-GLM analysis for QIDS-SR scores across five visits and four infusions showed a significant effect of time (F= 97.60, p < 0.001, η 2 p = 0.61, BF 10 = 1.77 × 10 +46 ). Tabledisplays outcomes of post-hoc tests correcting p for multiple comparisons, showing significant reductions in QIDS-SR after the first and second infusions. These outcomes were found irrespective of treatment schedule. The Bayes factor (BF) indicates that the evidence for these improvements is strong. Although the improvement in depression after the third infusion was not statistically significant and effect size (d) is low, BF suggests moderate evidence in favor of an improvement. Additional decreases in QIDS-SR scores after the fourth infusion were not significant and BF evidence for improvement was low. Of the 63 patients, 46.03% (n = 29) were responders and 23.81% (n = 15) achieved remission after four infusions.
We first examined correlations between QIDS-SR change score (QIDS-SR baseline minus visit five) and CTQ variables. Possible effects of childhood maltreatment were examined further with RM-GLM analyses that included CTQ variables that the initial correlation analysis showed to have a significant relationship with QIDS-SR change. QIDS-SR change correlated significantly with maltreatment load (r = 0.427, p < 0.001; BF 10 = 59.89), PN (r = 0.390, p = 0.002; BF 10 = 20.61), total CTQ (r = 0.360, p = 0.004; BF 10 = 9.52), PA (r = 0.359, p = 0.004; BF 10 = 9.25), and SA (r = 0.335, p = 0.007; BF 10 = 5.29). Correlations were not significant for EA (r = 0.137, p = 0.284; BF 10 = 0.275) and EN (r = 0.164, p = 0.200; BF 10 = 0.351). Separate RM-GLM analyses tested for effects of maltreatment load, and of PN, PA and SA. p-values are corrected for the two RM-GLM analyses (corrected p-value < 0.025 to be significant). The RM-GLM analysis with load as grouping variable revealed a significant effect of time (F= 106.93, p < 0.001, η 2 p = 0.65, BF 10 = 1.77 × 10 +46 ) and time by load interaction (F[4,248] = 2.40, p = 0.003, η 2 p = 0.17; BF = 6.57) (for extracting BF for interaction terms, see Appendix E and). Load by itself was not significant (F[5,57] = 1.32, p = 0.27, η 2 p = 0.10, BF 10 = 0.213). The time by load interaction is displayed in Figure. ANOVA's showed that the load groups did not differ in QIDS-SR score at any of the time points (F[5,57] < 2.08, p > 0.81, η 2 p < 0.16; BF 10 = 0.185 -0.680). By contrast, examination of load effects on QIDS-SR change score revealed Bonferroni-corrected higher change scores for load 4 (QIDS-SR change score = 14.67 ± 4.41) and 5 (15.40 ± 2.30) compared to load 1 (7.38 ± 4.87) (respectively, t = 3.19, p = 0.035, d = 1.53; BF 10 = 2.35, and t = 3.28, p = 0.027, d = 1.80; BF 10 = 3.78), and a trend for a difference between load 0 (8.0 ± 4.85) and load 5 (t = 3.04, p = 0.053, d = 1.66; BF 10 = 2.56). No significant differences were found between the other groups, indicating ketamine could benefit patients with a very high maltreatment load more than patients with a low load. RM-GLM for CTQ subscales included SA, PA and PN as continuous independent variables. Outcomes showed the significant effect of time, and a significant time by PA interaction (F[4,236] = 5.83, p < 0.001, η 2 p = 0.090) with the time by PN interaction approaching significance (F[4,236] = 2.38, p = 0.052, η 2 p = 0.039). Main effects of the CTQ subscales (F[1,59] < 2.49, p > 0.11) and the time by SA interaction (F[4,236] = 1.57, p = 0.18, η 2 p = 0.026) were not significant. As noted by the correlation analysis, those with higher scores on PA have a greater decline in QIDS-SR from baseline to visit five. A final RM-GLM with CTQ total score also revealed the interaction with time (F[4,244] = 3.08, p = 0.017, η 2 p = 0.048) with the same effect as that found for PA. 57, p = 0.18, η 2 p = 0.026) were not significant. As noted by the correlation analysis, those with higher scores on PA have a greater decline in QIDS-SR from baseline to visit five. A final RM-GLM with CTQ total score also revealed the interaction with time (F[4,244] = 3.08, p = 0.017, η 2 p = 0.048) with the same effect as that found for PA.
Relationships between maltreatment and response and remission rates at Visit 5 were examined with X 2 statistics. Outcomes were corrected for multiple comparisons (pcor < 0.0083 for CTQ load and the five subscales). Tabledisplays the outcomes of the statistical analyses, revealing significant effects of maltreatment load and PN. BF shows very strong evidence for remission with higher than lower maltreatment load, strong evidence for remission with PN, and moderate evidence for remission with both SA and PA. There were no variable-specific effects on response rate.
Relationships between maltreatment and response and remission rates at Visit 5 were examined with X 2 statistics. Outcomes were corrected for multiple comparisons (p cor < 0.0083 for CTQ load and the five subscales). Tabledisplays the outcomes of the statistical analyses, revealing significant effects of maltreatment load and PN. BF shows very strong evidence for remission with higher than lower maltreatment load, strong evidence for remission with PN, and moderate evidence for remission with both SA and PA. There were no variable-specific effects on response rate. Exploring the effect of maltreatment load on response and remission rates, Figuredisplays the percentages of patients who met criteria for response and remission at visit 5. The figure suggests that patients with clinically significant maltreatment on at least four CTQ subscales have a higher rate of response and remission than those with a load of 3 and lower, although the effect of load was significant for remission and not response rate. This indicates that meeting clinical significance of childhood maltreatment on at least four CTQ subscales could predict a higher likelihood of remission after four once-or twice-weekly infusions. Exploring the effect of maltreatment load on response and remission rates, Figuredisplays the percentages of patients who met criteria for response and remission at visit 5. The figure suggests that patients with clinically significant maltreatment on at least four CTQ subscales have a higher rate of response and remission than those with a load of 3 and lower, although the effect of load was significant for remission and not response rate. This indicates that meeting clinical significance of childhood maltreatment on at least four CTQ subscales could predict a higher likelihood of remission after four once-or twice-weekly infusions.
Table G1 displays demographic, treatment and clinical variables divided by maltreatment load. Loads only differed on CTQ total and subscale scores. Examining possible moderating effects of demographic variables (age, gender), treatment variables (ketamine dose, treatment schedule), selfreported diagnosis, and prescribed psychopharmacological treatment on the relationship between childhood maltreatment and ketamine treatment response revealed a minimal influence of those variables on the time by load interaction and the effect of load on remission rate. Those variables did not consistently relate to treatment effect. Effects of diagnosis and of medication on the time by load interaction is provided in Table(right-hand column).
We analyzed patients continuing with multiple infusions on a per-protocol basis, excluding patients who did not return to the clinic (n = 32) or who changed to a treatment schedule different that was different from a fixed weekly/bi-weekly (n = 20) (see CONSORT chart in Appendix F). Analyzing our data on an intent-to-treat basis using last-observation-carried-forward, including all 115 subjects, revealed that maltreatment load was not associated with exclusion from the sample (X 2 = 4.30, p = 0.51) and was not related to the reason of exclusion from the sample (X 2 = 8.73, p = 0.56).
Table A5 displays demographic, treatment and clinical variables divided by maltreatment load. Loads only differed on CTQ total and subscale scores. Examining possible moderating effects of demographic variables (age, gender), treatment variables (ketamine dose, treatment schedule), self-reported diagnosis, and prescribed psychopharmacological treatment on the relationship between childhood maltreatment and ketamine treatment response revealed a minimal influence of those variables on the time by load interaction and the effect of load on remission rate. Those variables did not consistently relate to treatment effect. Effects of diagnosis and of medication on the time by load interaction is provided in Table(right-hand column).
We analyzed patients continuing with multiple infusions on a per-protocol basis, excluding patients who did not return to the clinic (n = 32) or who changed to a treatment schedule different that was different from a fixed weekly/bi-weekly (n = 20) (see CONSORT chart in Appendix F). Analyzing our data on an intent-to-treat basis using last-observation-carried-forward, including all 115 subjects, revealed that maltreatment load was not associated with exclusion from the sample (X 2 = 4.30, p = 0.51) and was not related to the reason of exclusion from the sample (X 2 = 8.73, p = 0.56). On the other hand, patients with clinically significant physical neglect were less likely to be excluded (X 2 = 6.54, p = 0.011). No other significant relationships were found. These outcomes suggest that patients with more severe maltreatment may benefit more from ketamine infusion because they were more likely to follow the fixed twice-and once-weekly treatment schedule than patients with low maltreatment. However, RM-GLM for QIDS-SR with time (five levels), CTQ maltreatment load (five levels) and completer status (two levels, complete vs. exit) revealed the main effect of time on QIDS-SR (F(4,412) = 121.40, p < 0.001) and the interaction time x load (F(20,412) = 1.82, p = 0.017). An additional interaction between time x completer status appeared (F(4,412) = 3.38, p = 0.010). Other main effects or interactions were not significant. Repeating the X 2 analyses revealed the previously reported effects of load for response rate (X 2 = 11.60, p = 0.041) and for remission rate (X 2 = 15.19, p = 0.010). These outcomes are consistent with those from the per-protocol analyses, suggesting that ketamine could benefit patients with a history of severe compared to low or no maltreatment.
Contrary to our hypotheses, this naturalistic study in TRD patients showed that those with childhood maltreatment not only benefit as much as those without clinically significant maltreatment history, but may benefit more from a single and repeated ketamine infusions. Childhood sexual abuse (single dose) or physical abuse (repeated doses) are also associated with a better treatment response. The effects of maltreatment load on treatment response and on remission rate suggests that the summation of clinically significant childhood maltreatment domains is a better predictor than clinical significance on a specific category of maltreatment. Outcomes were minimally affected by age, gender, and ketamine dose for single and repeated infusion. For repeated infusion, psychiatric diagnosis (bipolar disorder) and concurrent medication (antipsychotics, hypnotics, atypical antidepressants) could affect outcomes, but the outcomes do not allow speculating how or why these variables influence the effect of maltreatment on ketamine's treatment response. In general, the outcomes, suggest that ketamine could benefit TRD patients with high maltreatment load across a variety of diagnoses and concurrent treatment, in particular for single infusion. Although women had higher QIDS-SR scores than men irrespective of treatment, we found no evidence of different treatment responses between men and women, extending the lack of gender effects reported in controlled clinical trials using single dose infusionto a clinical setting. Further, the difference in depression between men and women in our study is only 1.61 points on the QIDS-SR, suggesting that this effect is clinically not meaningful. The relationship between more severe childhood maltreatment and a better treatment response to ketamine could be associated with processes of trauma-induced behavioral sensitization. Thirty years of evidence across species show that trauma (but also uncontrollable stress in general, repeated use of substances of abuse, mood or anxiety episodes, and suicide attempts) could induce sensitization of behavioral, motivational and stress systems, thereby increasing behavioral and physiological reactivity (expression) to subsequent stressors. Induction and expression of behavioral sensitization require activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs)albeit via different neural pathways. In preclinical models, NMDAR antagonists blocked inductionand expressionof behavioral sensitization by stress, and in humans with PTSD, a subanesthetic dose of ketamineor NMDR antagonist memantinecould improve symptoms of hyperarousal and depressive symptoms which are considered expressions of behavioral sensitization. It is, therefore, possible that resistance to conventional antidepressants may be related to expression of sensitization by early stressful events that could be blocked in this population by ketamine. There are currently no validated markers of sensitization, but development of such markers might make it possible to identify and treat "treatment-resistant" depression in a physiologically-based manner. In addition to effects of childhood maltreatment on treatment response, we also showed that ketamine's antidepressant effects were similar across infusion schedules (twice or once weekly infusions), with improvements in depression after the first infusion, a further improvement after the second infusion, and perhaps a further improvement after the third infusion before plateauing. A twice weekly infusion schedule for the first three infusions followed by weekly infusions for maintenance may therefore maximize benefit and minimize patient burden. Several limitations of the current study complicate the interpretation of outcomes. First, the study sample is relatively small, limiting the number of subjects included in the analyses examining the effects of the highest maltreatment loads as well as those examining the influence of medications and comorbid psychiatric diagnoses. Second, demographic and clinical features, such as patient education level, socio-economic status (SES), family history, and history of medication duration and compliance were not available and may have affected outcomes. Third, the CTQ measures childhood maltreatment, but not other sources of trauma such as parental divorce, death of a parent or loved one, or (natural) disasters. It is also a retrospective measure, which may be affected by recall bias, with patients either minimizing or exaggerating actual maltreatment. Fourth, although we accounted for PTSD diagnosis, we did not address possible further moderating effects of adulthood trauma on ketamine treatment response. Finally, outcomes are based on a naturalistic study design which could bias clinical and treatment variables and therefore complicate the generalizability of our findings.
This study included adult patients with moderate to very severe depressive symptoms (baseline QIDS-SR > of 10) presenting for treatment at a ketamine treatment clinic. Patients had failed at least one trial of antidepressant medication. The study examined the effects of childhood maltreatment, operationalized as sexual abuse, physical abuse or neglect and emotional abuse and neglect before the age of 18 measured with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), on ketamine's antidepressant response after a single infusion of ketamine and after at least 4 repeated infusions of ketamine. The first sample of patients (n = 115) received at least 1 infusion of IV ketamine with a post-infusion assessment 3 or 7 days after the infusion. The second sample comprised a subset of patients (n = 63) who continued treatment to receive at least 4 infusions on a twice weekly or weekly basis on Wednesdays and/or Saturdays. The Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology-Self Report (QIDS-SR)was administered at baseline prior to the first infusion, and prior to each subsequent infusion to assess treatment effects. Figuredisplays the study samples and order of study procedures at each visit. education level, socio-economic status (SES), family history, and history of medication duration and compliance were not available and may have affected outcomes. Third, the CTQ measures childhood maltreatment, but not other sources of trauma such as parental divorce, death of a parent or loved one, or (natural) disasters. It is also a retrospective measure, which may be affected by recall bias, with patients either minimizing or exaggerating actual maltreatment. Fourth, although we accounted for PTSD diagnosis, we did not address possible further moderating effects of adulthood trauma on ketamine treatment response. Finally, outcomes are based on a naturalistic study design which could bias clinical and treatment variables and therefore complicate the generalizability of our findings.
This study included adult patients with moderate to very severe depressive symptoms (baseline QIDS-SR > of 10) presenting for treatment at a ketamine treatment clinic. Patients had failed at least one trial of antidepressant medication. The study examined the effects of childhood maltreatment, operationalized as sexual abuse, physical abuse or neglect and emotional abuse and neglect before the age of 18 measured with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), on ketamine's antidepressant response after a single infusion of ketamine and after at least 4 repeated infusions of ketamine. The first sample of patients (n = 115) received at least 1 infusion of IV ketamine with a postinfusion assessment 3 or 7 days after the infusion. The second sample comprised a subset of patients (n = 63) who continued treatment to receive at least 4 infusions on a twice weekly or weekly basis on Wednesdays and/or Saturdays. The Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology-Self Report (QIDS-SR)was administered at baseline prior to the first infusion, and prior to each subsequent infusion to assess treatment effects. Figuredisplays the study samples and order of study procedures at each visit.
Treatment infusions took place in a private room equipped with vital sign monitoring and were administered by a board-certified anesthesiologist or anesthetist. Weight based dosing of IV ketamine was delivered over 40 min-2 h as per standard procedures described in numerous publications. For nausea, patients were given ondansetron.
A waiver of consent was obtained from the Baylor College of Medicine Investigational Review Board (IRB) to analyze de-identified demographic and clinical data from patients who received treatment a ketamine treatment center. Data were collected by clinic staff as part of routine clinical care from April 2016 to April 2019. Researchers received de-identified information in a database.
The QIDS-SRis a 16-item self-report scale assessing the severity of depressive symptoms. The QIDS-SR assesses all the criterion symptom domains designated by the American Psychiatry Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5th edition (APA, 2013) to diagnose a major depressive episode. The QIDS-SR is easy to administer and is sensitive to change. Its psychometric properties have been established in various study samples. The CTQis a 28-item self-report scale measuring childhood maltreatment prior to the age of 18. It has been validated in clinical and non-clinical samples, and has sound psychometric properties (internal consistency α > 0.78; test-retest reliability r = 0.88). Twenty-five items assess the presence of abuse or neglect across 5 domains of childhood maltreatment: sexual, physical and emotional abuse, and physical and emotional neglect. Each item is scored on a 5-point Likert scale from never true to very often true, and is in reference to "When you were growing up". Scores range from 5 to 25 on each of the 5 subscales with higher scores indicating more severe maltreatment. Following previously established guidelines, clinically significant maltreatment in each domain is defined as a score of at least 8 (sexual abuse, physical abuse, physical neglect), 10 (emotional abuse), and 15 (emotional neglect). We were also interested in the influence of trauma load across maltreatment domains. The CTQ total score does not take into account clinically relevant scores on each subscale. For that reason, we calculated a "maltreatment load" score to denote the total number of domains a patient scored above threshold for clinically significant maltreatment (score 0-5). A higher load indicates more extensive clinically significant childhood maltreatment.
Ketamine treatment effects on QIDS-SR and the possible influence of childhood maltreatment were tested with repeated measures general linear models (RM-GLM). Time was included as a dependent variable for analyses for a single infusion (baseline, time of post-infusion assessment [TPIA]) and for repeated infusion (baseline [visit 1], visit 2, visit 3, visit 4, visit 5). First, effects of treatment were examined. Second, CTQ variables were included as dichotomous or continuous variables where appropriate. CTQ variables were included only when an initial correlation analysis showed a significant correlation between the CTQ variable and QIDS-SR change score (baseline minus TPIA or visit 5). Finally, demographic characteristics (age, gender), treatment characteristics (ketamine dose, TPIA or treatment schedule), diagnosis and/or concurrent psychoactive medication were included as independent variables to examine possible modulating effects on relationships between maltreatment and treatment response. For all RM-GLM, significant interactions were tested with appropriate follow-up analyses. Relationships between response rate (≥50% reduction from QIDS-SR baseline) and remission rate (QIDS-SR of <6) with demographic, clinical and CTQ variables were tested with X 2 or t-tests where appropriate. Besides providing p-values to express the rejection of a null hypothesis, extra information is provided by the Bayes factor (BF) about the strength of the evidence in favor of the alternative hypothesis over the null hypothesis (BF 10 ) or vice versa. Data distributions of ketamine absolute dose and dose in mg/kg, SA, PA and PN were normalized with inverse transformations. Statistical outcomes of inversely transformed data are in opposite directions compared to analyses with the original data; we report outcomes in the non-normalized direction (e.g., negative r-values with transformed variables will be presented as positive r-values as if non-normalized). All other variables were normally distributed. All statistical analyses were performed in JASP 0.9.0.1.
The outcomes from this naturalistic study suggest that in TRD populations with high self-reported childhood maltreatment, ketamine treatment could be considered before other (add-on) antidepressant medications. Outcomes also suggest that the optimal treatment response can be obtained with two or three infusions on a twice-weekly schedule followed by maintenance of the antidepressant response with once weekly ketamine infusions.. There is no cut-off available for total CTQ.
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