Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder: Etiology, Clinical Features, and Therapeutic Perspectives
This paper provides a comprehensive review of 45 original studies on Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder, synthesising current evidence on proposed aetiologies, the hallucinogens implicated, clinical features of HPPD types I and II, psychiatric comorbidities and available and potential treatments. It emphasises HPPD's rarity, its possible occurrence even after a single exposure, and the limited, heterogeneous evidence guiding therapeutic strategies.
Abstract
Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD) is a rare, and therefore, poorly understood condition linked to hallucinogenic drugs consumption. The prevalence of this disorder is low; the condition is more often diagnosed in individuals with a history of previous psychological issues or substance misuse, but it can arise in anyone, even after a single exposure to triggering drugs. The aims of the present study are to review all the original studies about HPPD in order to evaluate the following: (1) the possible suggested etiologies; (2) the possible hallucinogens involved in HPPD induction; (3) the clinical features of both HPPD I and II; (4) the possible psychiatric comorbidities; and (5) the available and potential therapeutic strategies. We searched PubMed to identify original studies about psychedelics and Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD). Our research yielded a total of 45 papers, which have been analyzed and tabled to provide readers with the most updated and comprehensive literature review about the clinical features and treatment options for HPPD.
Research Summary of 'Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder: Etiology, Clinical Features, and Therapeutic Perspectives'
Introduction
Hallucinogens are a diverse group of natural and synthetic compounds that profoundly alter consciousness, cognition, emotion and perception, with visual distortions being the most prominent sensory effect. Their use spans millennia in ritual and healing contexts and re-emerged in Western medicine and culture in the 20th century, with LSD as the archetypal synthetic hallucinogen. Contemporary patterns of use include ceremonial contexts as well as recreational poly‑substance settings and novel psychoactive substances, and there is growing clinical concern about adverse psychiatric sequelae even in people without prior psychopathology. This paper by Martinotti and colleagues reviews original studies on Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD), a relatively rare condition in which perceptual disturbances experienced during acute intoxication recur after the drug has been cleared. The authors set out to summarise suggested etiologies, the range of substances implicated, clinical features of the two proposed subtypes (HPPD I and HPPD II), psychiatric comorbidities, and reported therapeutic strategies, aiming to provide a comprehensive qualitative synthesis of the original literature.
Expert Research Summaries
Go Pro to access AI-powered section-by-section summaries, editorial takes, and the full research toolkit.
Study Details
- Study Typemeta
- Journal
- Compound
- Author
- APA Citation
Martinotti, G., Santacroce, R., Pettorruso, M., Montemitro, C., Spano, M., Lorusso, M., Di Giannantonio, M., & Lerner, A. (2018). Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder: Etiology, Clinical Features, and Therapeutic Perspectives. Brain Sciences, 8(3), 47. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8030047
References (7)
Papers cited by this study that are also in Blossom
Abraham, H. D., Aldridge, A. M., Gogia, P. · Neuropsychopharmacology (1996)
Garcia-Romeu, A., Kersgaard, B., Addy, P. H. · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology (2016)
Halpern, J. H., Pope Jr, H. G. · Drug and Alcohol Dependence (2003)
Lerner, A. G. · The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences; Jerusalem (2014)
Litjens, R. P. W., Brunt, T. M., Alderliefste, G. et al. · European Neuropsychopharmacology (2014)
Lerner, A. G. · The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences; Jerusalem (2015)
Baggott, M. J., Coyle, J. R., Erowid, E. et al. · Drug and Alcohol Dependence (2011)
Cited By (31)
Papers in Blossom that reference this study
Zhou, K., De Wied, D., Carhart-Harris, R. L. et al. · PNAS (2025)
Goodwin, G. M., Nowakowska, A., Atli, M. et al. · Journal of Clinical Psychiatry (2025)
Modzelewski, S., Waszkiewicz, N., Lukasiewicz, K. et al. · Neuropharmacology (2025)
Swanson, L. R., Jungers, S., Varghese, R. et al. · Journal of Vision (2024)
Straumann, I., Holze, F., Becker, A. M. et al. · Neuroscience Applied (2024)
Bremler, R., Katati, N., Shergill, P. et al. · Scientific Reports (2023)
Bouso, J. C., Simonsson, O., Kurth, F. et al. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2022)
Van Der Walt, A., Ford, H., Fraser, C. L. et al. · Frontiers in Neurology (2022)
Doyle, M. A., Ling, S., Lui, L. M. W. et al. · Expert Opinion on Drug Safety (2022)
Ferenstein, G. · SSRN (2022)
Show all 31 papersShow fewer
Raison, C. L., Jain, R., Jain, S. et al. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2022)
Schetz, D., Schetz, A., Kocić, I. · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy (2022)
Müller, F., Holze, F., Becker, A. M. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2022)
Dursun, S. M., Kelly, J. R., Gillan, C. M. et al. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2021)
Strumila, R., Guillaume, S. · Pharmaceuticals (2021)
Basedow, L. A., Riemer, T. G., Reiche, S. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2021)
McGovern, H., Leptourgos, P., Hutchinson, B. et al. · Psyarxiv (2021)
Holze, F., Caluori, T. V., Vizeli, P. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2021)
Ermentrout, G. B., Vis, P. J., Goudriaan, A. E. et al. · Frontiers in Neuroscience (2021)
Kočárová, C., Horacek, J., Carhart-Harris, R. L. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2021)
Savino, A., Nichols, C. D. · Biorxiv (2021)
van Dongen, R. M., Alderliefste, G. J., Onderwater, G. L. J. et al. · European Journal of Neurology (2021)
Gilbert, C. S., Earleywine, M., Mian, M. N. et al. · Journal of Psychedelic Studies (2021)
Zeifman, R. J., Singhal, N., Breslow, L. et al. · ACS Pharmacology and Translational Science (2021)
Nichols, D. E., Walter, H. · Pharmacopsychiatry (2020)
Ferris, J. A., Nutt, D. J. · Drug Science Policy and Law (2020)
Kelly, J. R., Crockett, M. T., Alexander, L. et al. · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine (2020)
Bornemann, J. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2020)
Polito, V., Stevenson, R. J. · PLOS ONE (2019)
Anderson, T., Petranker, R., Rosenbaum, D. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2019)
Knuijver, T., Belgers, M., Markus, W. et al. · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology (2018)
Your Personal Research Library
Go Pro to save papers, add notes, rate studies, and organize your research into custom shelves.