Consciousness, Religion, and Gurus: Pitfalls of Psychedelic Medicine

The extracted text does not describe empirical methods because the paper is a viewpoint rather than a primary research study. Johnson builds arguments by synthesising prior empirical findings, theoretical proposals, philosophical distinctions, and clinical observations rather than reporting new data or a formal systematic review. The author cites examples from the recent clinical literature on psilocybin, LSD, ayahuasca (DMT), and MDMA, and engages with philosophical constructs and consciousness theories such as Global Workspace Theory and Integrated Information Theory to frame the discussion. No systematic search strategy, inclusion/exclusion criteria, quantitative meta-analytic methods, or original qualitative methods are reported in the extracted text. Instead, the piece uses conceptual analysis and selective reference to the existing literature to identify potential epistemic confusions and ethical risks associated with psychedelic research and therapeutic practice. Where the prose relies on empirical claims (for example, about clinical efficacy or neuroimaging findings), it references prior studies or theoretical proposals rather than new analyses presented in this paper.

Johnson organises the paper around three principal pitfalls. 1) Sloppiness regarding the term "consciousness": The author argues that "consciousness" is used imprecisely in psychedelic research, which risks a jingle fallacy—treating multiple distinct phenomena as if they were identical because they share a label. Johnson distinguishes a range of concepts often lumped under consciousness, including sentience, wakefulness, self-awareness, metacognitive reportability, stimulus discrimination, access consciousness (availability of internal states for reporting and control), narrative consciousness (stream of consciousness), information integration, behavioural control, and phenomenal consciousness (the subjective "what it is like" aspect, or qualia). He draws on the philosophical distinction between the "easy problems" (explaining processes and contents) and the "hard problem" (explaining why experience exists) to argue that psychedelic research so far has not substantially progressed understanding of the hard problem and has at best generated testable hypotheses that may address some of the easy problems. Neuroimaging observations often cited as mechanistic explanations—for example, decreases in default mode network (DMN) functional connectivity—are treated cautiously; Johnson notes that DMN changes are neither unique to psychedelics nor necessarily sufficient to explain self-referential processing, and that psychedelic effects involve broad network alterations. He suggests psychedelics may be useful experimental tools for testing falsifiable hypotheses about access to autobiographical memory, self-awareness, and memory reconsolidation, but he cautions against conflating subjective reports with definitive insights into the nature of consciousness. 2) Inappropriate introduction of investigators' or clinicians' religious/spiritual beliefs: Johnson warns that clinicians and scientists may inappropriately introduce their own non-empirical supernatural or "new age" beliefs into clinical sessions, which can bias participants, undermine scientific neutrality, and alienate patients with different beliefs. He contrasts this with secular, patient-centred approaches that nevertheless recognise and support patients' own sources of meaning. Practical examples of problematic behaviour include asserting metaphysical claims as fact, endorsing perennialism (a meta-religious stance), or displaying religious icons in treatment rooms; the author specifically notes the frequent presence of Buddha statues in session spaces as potentially exclusionary. Johnson recommends clinicians avoid introducing their personal religious or nonempirically supported claims into therapy while allowing participants to bring personally meaningful items, including religious icons, if they choose. He also clarifies that these recommendations apply to clinical and scientific contexts and do not proscribe religious or indigenous ritual uses of psychedelics or scholarly study of such practices. 3) Clinical boundaries and other ethical challenges: The paper cautions against "psychedelic exceptionalism", the belief that ordinary ethical and professional rules can be suspended because psychedelic experiences are uniquely sacred or therapeutic. Johnson points to historical abuses in earlier psychedelic research eras and highlights how the profound subjective effects of psychedelics can amplify ordinary risks in psychotherapy—power differentials, boundary crossings, and potential for sexual or other exploitation. To mitigate these risks, he recommends transparent clinical processes, involvement of multiple treatment personnel during sessions, and adherence to established professional boundaries and ethical norms. The author frames psychedelic therapy as intensifying many issues already present in non-psychedelic psychotherapy rather than creating entirely novel categories of misconduct. The extracted Conclusions section begins to list recommendations reiterating the need for precise terminology around consciousness and advising against casual use of the term in psychedelic research, but the full set of recommendations is not fully present in the extraction.

Johnson interprets the main arguments as pragmatic guidance to shape responsible psychedelic science and clinical practice. He views precise conceptual language about consciousness as essential to avoid overstated claims and to enable testable neuroscientific and psychological hypotheses. The author positions these recommendations relative to prior work by acknowledging that psychedelic research has yielded promising therapeutic outcomes and useful hypotheses about mechanisms, but he maintains that enthusiasm should not outpace careful philosophical and methodological rigour. Regarding spiritual and religious issues, Johnson emphasises a secular clinical stance that remains respectful of patients' beliefs: clinicians may be personally religious or spiritual, but should refrain from imposing non-empirical frameworks on participants. He argues this approach will both protect individual patients and facilitate broader societal uptake of psychedelic therapies (for example, by reducing alienation among people of different faiths and supporting mainstream acceptance and insurance coverage). The discussion also stresses that clinicians must not allow the specialness of psychedelic experiences to erode ethical standards; rather, robust procedural safeguards and professional boundaries should be reinforced, including having multiple treatment staff present and maintaining transparency in care. Johnson recognises caveats and uncertainties. He accepts that "spiritual" can denote secular, psychologically beneficial constructs (such as meaning, community, and care), which clinicians should encourage, and he concedes that psychedelic experiences often prompt patients to address "big questions" about reality and meaning—matters appropriate for patients to explore but not for clinicians to dictate. He also calls for further empirical work where appropriate, for instance to determine whether and how psychedelic experiences influence researchers' and participants' philosophies of consciousness. Limitations of the paper itself are implicit in its viewpoint format: arguments are conceptual and illustrative rather than derived from new empirical evidence or a systematic review.

Johnson concludes with practical recommendations to address the epistemological and ethical challenges discussed. The extracted text explicitly lists two recommendations: (1) use specific, well-grounded terms when discussing concepts related to consciousness in the context of psychedelics; and (2) avoid using the undifferentiated term "consciousness" in psychedelic research—for example, when referring to subjective ratings of experiences—unless one is directly investigating well-defined, specified concepts associated with consciousness. The extraction ends partway through the conclusions, so additional recommendations the author may have provided are not present in the provided text.