Altered State of Consciousness and Mental Imagery as a Function of N, N-dimethyltryptamine Concentration in Ritualistic Ayahuasca Users
In ritualistic Santo Daime users, ayahuasca produced pronounced alterations in consciousness—especially oceanic boundlessness, visual restructuralization and ego dissolution—that correlated with peak serum DMT concentrations. Standard measures of mental imagery were largely unchanged (though perspective shifts and cognitive flexibility correlated with DMT), and peak alkaloid levels did not track dose, suggesting DMT primarily drives the acute phenomenology while long‑term use may attenuate imagery effects.
Authors
- Johannes Ramaekers
- Nathalie Mason
- Jan Reckweg
Published
Abstract
Consumption of the psychedelic brew ayahuasca is a central ritualistic aspect of the Santo Daime religion. The current observational, baseline controlled study was designed to assess whether members (n = 24) of the Santo Daime church would show enhanced capacity for mental imagery during an ayahuasca experience. In addition, this study assessed whether the effects of ayahuasca on consciousness and mental imagery were related to peak serum concentration of N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), the main psychoactive component. Measures of altered states of consciousness (5-Dimensional Altered States of Consciousness Questionnaire) and ego dissolution (Ego Dissolution Inventory [EDI]) as well as measures of mental imagery (visual perspective shifting, vividness of visual imagery, cognitive flexibility, associative thinking) were taken on two subsequent days on which members of Santo Daime were sober or drank a self-selected volume of ayahuasca. Measures of altered states of consciousness revealed that feelings of oceanic boundlessness, visual restructuralization, and EDI increased most prominently after drinking and shared a positive correlation with peak DMT concentration. Measures of mental imagery did not noticeably differ between the baseline and ayahuasca condition, although subjective ratings of cognitive flexibility were lower under ayahuasca. Two measures related to mental imagery, that is, perspective shifts and cognitive flexibility, were significantly correlated to peak DMT concentrations. Peak concentrations of DMT and other alkaloids did not correlate with ayahuasca dose. These findings confirm previous notions that the primary phenomenological characteristics of ayahuasca are driven by DMT. Compensatory or neuroadaptive effects associated with long-term ayahuasca intake may have mitigated the acute impact of ayahuasca in Santo Daime members on mental imagery.
Research Summary of 'Altered State of Consciousness and Mental Imagery as a Function of N, N-dimethyltryptamine Concentration in Ritualistic Ayahuasca Users'
Introduction
Ayahuasca is a traditional Amazonian plant brew combining Psychotria viridis (containing the psychedelic N, N-dimethyltryptamine, DMT) and Banisteriopsis caapi (containing β-carboline monoamine‑oxidase inhibitors such as harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine). Earlier research has shown that DMT and related serotonergic 5HT2A agonists produce pronounced alterations in perception, visual phenomena and ‘‘entheogenic’’ or spiritual experiences. Neuroimaging and pharmacological studies have linked mental imagery and perceptual alterations to brain networks that are rich in 5HT2A receptors, and prior work suggests that psychedelics acutely alter default mode network connectivity, increase bottom‑up sensory influence, and change cognitive control processes relevant to imagery, creativity and flexible cognition. Ramaekers and colleagues designed an observational, baseline‑controlled, within‑subject study in experienced Santo Daime ritual participants to test whether acute ayahuasca intake enhances mental imagery and whether such effects scale with peak serum DMT concentration. The investigators measured altered states of consciousness and several objective and subjective indices of mental imagery and related cognitive processes on two consecutive days: a sober baseline day and a day on which participants self‑administered their usual ayahuasca dose. The primary hypothesis was that ayahuasca would increase mental imagery, particularly in individuals with higher peak DMT concentrations.
Expert Research Summaries
Go Pro to access AI-powered section-by-section summaries, editorial takes, and the full research toolkit.
Study Details
- Study Typeindividual
- Journal
- Compounds
- Topics
- Authors
- APA Citation
Ramaekers, J. G., Mallaroni, P., Kloft, L., Reckweg, J. T., Toennes, S. W., van Oorsouw, K., & Mason, N. L. (2023). Altered State of Consciousness and Mental Imagery as a Function of N, N-dimethyltryptamine Concentration in Ritualistic Ayahuasca Users. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 35(9), 1382-1393. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_02003
References (40)
Papers cited by this study that are also in Blossom
Aqil, M., Roseman, L. · Neuropharmacology (2022)
Barrett, F. S., Doss, M. K., Sepeda, N. D. et al. · Scientific Reports (2020)
Bouso, J. C., Fábregas, J. M., Antonijoan, R. M. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2013)
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Friston, K. J. · Pharmacological Reviews (2019)
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Roseman, L., Bolstridge, M. et al. · Scientific Reports (2017)
De Araujo, D. B., Ribeiro, S., Cecchi, G. A. et al. · Human Brain Mapping (2011)
Dos Santos, R. G., Balthazar, F. M., Bouso, J. C. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2016)
Doss, M. K., Madden, M. B., Gaddis, A. et al. · Brain (2021)
Hartogsohn, I. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2021)
Kiraga, M. K., Mason, N. L., Uthaug, M. V. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2021)
Show all 40 referencesShow fewer
Kuypers, K. P. C., Riba, &. J., De La Fuente Revenga, &. M. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2016)
Kwan, A. C., Olson, D. E., Preller, K. H. et al. · Nature Medicine (2022)
Leptourgos, P., Fortier-Davy, M., Carhart-Harris, R. L. et al. · Schizophrenia Bulletin (2020)
Ly, C., Greb, A. C., Cameron, L. P. et al. · Cell Reports (2018)
Madrid-Gambin, F., Gomez-Gomez, A., Busquets-Garcia, A. et al. · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy (2022)
Madsen, M. K., Fisher, P. M., Burmester, D. et al. · Neuropsychopharmacology (2019)
Mason, N. L., Kuypers, K. P. C., Reckweg, J. T. et al. · Translational Psychiatry (2021)
McCulloch, D. E-W., Knudsen, G. M., Barrett, F. S. et al. · Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews (2022)
McKenna, D., Riba, J. · Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences (2016)
McKenna, D., Towers, G. H., Abbott, F. · Journal of Ethnopharmacology (1984)
Nichols, D. E. · Pharmacological Reviews (2016)
Nour, M. R., Evans, J., Nutt, D. J. et al. · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (2016)
Palhano-Fontes, F., Andrade, K. C., Tófoli, L.F. et al. · PLOS ONE (2015)
Palhano-Fontes, F., Barreto, D., Onias, H. et al. · Psychological Medicine (2018)
Reckweg, J., Mason, N. L., van Leeuwen, C. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2021)
Riba, J., Mcilhenny, E. H., Valle, M. et al. · Drug Testing and Analysis (2012)
Riba, J., Urbano, G., Morte, A. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2001)
Riba, J., Valle, M., Urbano, G. et al. · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (2003)
Rodriguez, L., Lopez, A., Moyna, G. et al. · ACS Omega (2022)
Sampedro, F., de la Fuente Revenga, M., Valle, M. et al. · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology (2017)
Schenberg, E. E., Alexandre, J. F. M., Filev, R. et al. · PLOS ONE (2015)
Smigielski, L., Scheidegger, M., Kometer, M. et al. · NeuroImage (2019)
Elices, M., Soler, J., Domínguez-Clavé, E. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2018)
Soler, J., Elices, M., Franquesa, A. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2015)
Stenbæk, D. S., Madsen, M. K., Ozenne, B. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2020)
Studerus, E., Gamma, A., Vollenweider, F. X. · PLOS ONE (2010)
Uthaug, M. V., Mason, N. L., Toennes, S. W. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2021)
Uthaug, M. V., Van Oorsouw, &. K., Kuypers, &. K. P. C. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2018)
Ramaekers, J. G. · Psychopharmacology (2022)
Vollenweider, F. X., Preller, K. H. · Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2020)
Cited By (5)
Papers in Blossom that reference this study
Egger, K., Meling, D., Polat, F. et al. · Imaging Neuroscience (2025)
Egger, K., Redondo, J. J., Müller, J. et al. · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy (2025)
Doss, M. K., Kloft, L., Mason, N. L. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2024)
Mallaroni, P., Mason, N. L., Kloft, L. et al. · Frontiers in Neuroscience (2023)
Tagen, M., Mantuani, D., Van Heerden, L. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2023)
Your Personal Research Library
Go Pro to save papers, add notes, rate studies, and organize your research into custom shelves.