In a pooled analysis of over 480,000 US adults from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2002–2014), lifetime classic psychedelic use — and psilocybin use specifically — was associated with reduced adjusted odds of past‑year larceny/theft, assault, and arrests for property and violent crimes. However, lifetime psychedelic use was also associated with higher odds of past‑year drug distribution and other illicit drugs were generally linked to increased criminal odds, supporting further clinical research of classic psychedelics, including psilocybin, in forensic settings.
Criminal behavior exacts a large toll on society and is resistant to intervention. Some evidence suggests classic psychedelics may inhibit criminal behavior, but the extent of these effects has not been comprehensively explored. In this study, we tested the relationships of classic psychedelic use and psilocybin use per se with criminal behavior among over 480,000 United States adult respondents pooled from the last 13 available years of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2002 through 2014) while controlling for numerous covariates. Lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with a reduced odds of past year larceny/theft (aOR = 0.73 (0.65–0.83)), past year assault (aOR = 0.88 (0.80–0.97)), past year arrest for a property crime (aOR = 0.78 (0.65–0.95)), and past year arrest for a violent crime (aOR = 0.82 (0.70–0.97)). In contrast, lifetime illicit use of other drugs was, by and large, associated with an increased odds of these outcomes. Lifetime classic psychedelic use, like lifetime illicit use of almost all other substances, was associated with an increased odds of past year drug distribution. Results were consistent with a protective effect of psilocybin for antisocial criminal behavior. These findings contribute to a compelling rationale for the initiation of clinical research with classic psychedelics, including psilocybin, in forensic settings.
Hendricks and colleagues frame criminal behaviour as a persistent public-health and social problem in the United States, noting high rates of supervision, arrest, and recidivism and limited effectiveness of conventional interventions. The authors point to historical and emerging evidence that classic psychedelics (non-selective 5-HT2A agonists such as LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin) have produced psychological and prosocial effects in some clinical and population studies, and they summarise earlier, methodologically limited efforts that tested psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy with offending populations. Against this background, the study set out to examine whether lifetime use of classic psychedelics in the general US adult population is associated with recent criminal behaviour, and whether psilocybin use specifically shows similar relationships. The authors hypothesised that lifetime classic psychedelic use, and lifetime psilocybin use per se, would be associated with a decreased likelihood of past-year criminal behaviour and therefore aimed to test these associations in a large, nationally representative dataset to inform potential clinical research in forensic settings.
Papers cited by this study that are also in Blossom
Carbonaro, T. M., Bradstreet, M. P., Barrett, F. S. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2016)
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Nutt, D. J. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2013)
Doblin, R. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (1998)
Hendricks, P. S., Clark, B., Johnson, M. W. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2014)
The investigators used pooled cross-sectional data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) for years 2002–2014, analysing adult respondents (≥18 years). The pooled sample comprised over 480,000 unweighted respondents; the NSDUH is designed to represent the non-institutionalised civilian US population. Analyses and the study protocol were approved by relevant institutional review boards. Lifetime classic psychedelic use was defined as any lifetime report of ayahuasca, DMT, LSD, mescaline, peyote or San Pedro, or psilocybin mushrooms. Four mutually exclusive exposure groups were created: Psilocybin Only (psilocybin but no other classic psychedelic), Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics, Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only, and No Psychedelics. Six criminal-behaviour outcomes were examined: three self-reported past-year behaviours—drug distribution (selling illegal drugs), larceny/theft, and assault—which were collected with ordinal response categories and collapsed into three levels (0 times, 1–2 times, >2 times); and three dichotomous past-year arrest outcomes for drug-related, property, and violent crimes constructed from specific arrest questions. A broad set of covariates was included to address confounding: survey year; age; sex; detailed ethnoracial categories; education; household income; marital and employment status; self-reported engagement in risky behaviour; degree to which religious beliefs influence decisions; and lifetime illicit use of a range of other substances (cocaine, other stimulants, sedatives, tranquilizers, heroin, pain relievers, marijuana, MDMA/ecstasy, PCP, and inhalants). Statistical analysis used generalized ordered logit regression for the three ordinal outcomes (allowing a partial proportional odds specification when proportionality was violated) and binomial logistic regression for the dichotomous arrest outcomes. All analyses accounted for the NSDUH complex survey design, sampling weights, and pooling across years. Data management was performed in SAS 9.4 and analyses in STATA 14 using the gologit2 package for generalized ordered logit models.
Descriptively, approximately one in seven respondents reported lifetime classic psychedelic use; the largest group was No Psychedelics, followed by Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics, Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only, and Psilocybin Only. Past-year criminal behaviours and arrests were infrequent in the weighted data (weighted percentages ranged about 0.2% to 1.2%). Lifetime classic psychedelic use was concentrated in younger adult strata (26–49 years), more common among men, non-Hispanic Whites and Native Americans/Alaska Natives, those with higher education and income, those reporting greater engagement in risky behaviour, employed individuals, and those reporting less influence of religious beliefs on decisions. The Psilocybin Only group in particular tended to be younger, more educated, higher income, more likely male and non-Hispanic White, and differed from other groups on lifetime use of other illicit substances. In adjusted models testing lifetime classic psychedelic use (versus no use) the investigators report specific associations: lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with lower adjusted odds of past-year larceny/theft (adjusted odds ratio, aOR = 0.73; 95% CI 0.65–0.83) and lower odds of past-year assault (aOR = 0.88; 95% CI 0.80–0.97). For arrest outcomes, lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with reduced odds of past-year arrest for a property crime (aOR = 0.78; 95% CI 0.65–0.95) and reduced odds of past-year arrest for a violent crime (aOR = 0.82; 95% CI 0.70–0.97). In contrast, lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with increased odds of past-year drug distribution; authors report a 47% to 68% increased odds for this outcome and indicate the association was stronger among individuals who distributed drugs more frequently. Lifetime classic psychedelic use was not associated with past-year arrest for a drug-related crime. Analyses of the four mutually exclusive groups found that, relative to the Psilocybin Only group, the No Psychedelics and Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only groups were less likely to report past-year drug distribution, while Psilocybin Only participants were less likely than No Psychedelics to report past-year larceny/theft and assault. The Psilocybin Only group, however, showed higher likelihood of past-year drug distribution compared with No Psychedelics and Non-Psilocybin Only groups, and higher larceny/theft than the Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics group in some comparisons. For most outcomes, lifetime illicit use of other substances was associated with increased odds of criminal behaviour or arrest; exceptions varied by substance and outcome (for example, lifetime sedative and PCP use were not associated with drug distribution). Where proportional odds assumptions were violated for certain covariates or exposures, partial proportional odds models allowed coefficients to vary across outcome levels, and Wald tests were used to identify such instances.
Hendricks and colleagues interpret their results as broadly consistent with a protective relationship between lifetime classic psychedelic use and certain antisocial criminal behaviours in the general US adult population. They note that lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with 27% lower odds of past-year larceny/theft, 12% lower odds of past-year assault, 22% lower odds of past-year arrest for a property crime, and 18% lower odds of past-year arrest for a violent crime, while lifetime use of most other illicit substances tended to be associated with increased odds of criminal outcomes. The authors highlight that the findings replicate and extend earlier, smaller or forensic-sample studies and that associations were observed both for self-reported offending and for arrest outcomes, which the authors argue reduces the likelihood that results reflect differential detection or evasion of arrest. The investigators also discuss an important exception: lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with substantially increased odds of past-year drug distribution. They consider possible interpretations without asserting causality — for example, that distribution may relate to distributing psychedelics (which comprise a small share of drug arrests) or reflect political and anti-authoritarian attitudes among psychedelic users — and they note that classic psychedelic use was not associated with drug-related arrests, possibly because most drug arrests involve substances such as heroin, cocaine, or marijuana. Several limitations are emphasised. The cross-sectional, self-report NSDUH data prohibit causal inference and cannot resolve temporality or dose–response relationships. Important potential confounders (for example, personality traits such as openness, spirituality, or political orientation) might account for observed associations despite adjustment for many covariates. The authors acknowledge response biases, inability to identify which substances were distributed, and the possibility that psychedelics can cause adverse acute or longer-term mental-health effects in some individuals. Mechanisms linking psychedelic experiences to prosocial or reduced antisocial behaviour remain speculative; mystical-type experiences and emotions such as awe are proposed hypotheses but were not measured in these data. Finally, the paper stresses ethical considerations for any translation into forensic settings. Past coercive or non-consensual administration of psychedelics in correctional contexts is noted as a cautionary precedent. The authors argue for individual autonomy, rigorous ethical safeguards, and avoidance of any treatment context that could be perceived as institutionally mandated. They conclude that the pattern of findings supports further clinical investigation of classic psychedelics, particularly psilocybin, in populations at elevated risk of criminal behaviour, while urging careful attention to ethics and potential harms.
The authors conclude that lifetime classic psychedelic use, and to some extent lifetime psilocybin use specifically, is associated with lower likelihood of larceny/theft and other property crimes, and lower likelihood of assault and other violent crimes in the US adult population. They suggest these findings, together with prior evidence, provide a rationale for clinical research on classic psychedelics in forensic settings, while underscoring the need for ethical safeguards and voluntary participation.
The United States places a greater proportion of its citizens under criminal justice supervision-2.8% of all adults-than any other country. Drug-related crimes (possession, use, distribution, or manufacturing of illicit drugs) and property crimes (burglary, larceny/theft, motor vehicle theft, or arson) are the most common criminal offenses, comprising approximately 14% and 13.5% of all arrests, respectively. Though rates of violent crime (murder, manslaughter, rape/sexual assault, assault, or robbery) are at historic lows and violent crime accounts for only 5% of all arrests (FBI Uniform Crime, the costs of violent crime remain high. Indeed, nearly all survivors of violent crime experience mental health problems, with a majority suffering from relationship difficulties or a decline in job/school performance and about one-third evidencing severe distress. Of all crimes, murder poses the greatest financial cost to society, estimated at nearly $9,000,000 per murder. Recidivism rates are alarmingly high following release from prison, with 67.8% and 76.6% of released offenders re-arrested within three and five years for a new crime, respectively. Property offenders have the highest five-year re-arrest rates (82.1%), followed by drug offenders (76.9%), and violent offenders (71.3%). Importantly, 33.1% of violent offenders go on to be re-arrested for another violent crime. Several interventions have been developed to decrease recidivism and include employment programs, cognitive-behavioral approaches, Moral Reconation Therapy, and specialty programs targeting juvenile offenders. Overall, interventions that employ cognitive-behavioral approaches and Moral Reconation Therapy demonstrate small effects, whereas those using employment strategies or targeting juveniles demonstrate no effect. Notably, individuals who have committed a violent crime are among the least likely to complete treatment and the most likely to re-offend after treatment dropout. The development of innovative and effective interventions to prevent criminal behavior is thus an obvious priority. Such interventions may involve classic psychedelics, non-selective 5HT2AR agonists including lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, and psilocybin that can occasion primary mystical experiences (also known as primary religious experiences or peak experiences) and that have been used for millennia across cultures with therapeutic intention. Indeed, during the first wave of human classic psychedelic research from the 1950s through the early 1970s, at least three studies tested the effect of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy on criminal offenders.provided 10 treatment-resistant sex offenders with multiple LSD-assisted group psychotherapy sessions and noted demonstrable increases in empathy, insight, communication, and treatment engagement in all but one participant.administered multiple LSD-assisted psychotherapy sessions to 21 "criminal psychopaths" and reported similar outcomes among 14 participants. In the largest and most widely known study of classic psychedelics and recidivism,provided 32 prisoners with psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in his Concord Prison Experiment, reporting positive findings. A later review, however, concluded that these findings were overstated, inadequate support was provided outside of psilocybin sessions, and that serious methodological flaws preclude any conclusions. Despite these mixed findings, legal proscriptions and a dearth of funding ruled out further study with classic psychedelics. Classic psychedelic research has experienced a modest renaissance over the past two and a half decades, with recent investigations demonstrating that classic psychedelics and psilocybin in particular may confer a number of long-lasting psychological benefits. For instance, in two separate randomized clinical trials, psilocybin produced substantial and sustained decreases in anxiety and depression among patients with life-threatening cancer. Similarly, in a singlearm, open-label feasibility study of treatment-resistant depression, psilocybin produced large and enduring improvements in mood. These findings comport with population-based studies indicating that having ever used a classic psychedelicand having ever used psilocybin per seare both associated with a decreased likelihood of psychological distress and suicidality. In addition, single-arm, open-label feasibility studies suggest psilocybin promotes abstinence from alcoholand tobacco, and a population-based study indicates that having ever used a classic psychedelic is associated with a decreased risk of opioid abuse and dependence. Considering that many individuals in the criminal justice system suffer from numerous comorbid psychopathologies that exacerbate criminality, these individuals may benefit from classic psychedelic-assisted interventions. Unfortunately, there is scant contemporary data to inform this issue. To our knowledge, only two recent studies have yielded data relevant to the potential impact of classic psychedelics on criminal behavior.found that naturalistic hallucinogen use predicted a reduced likelihood of supervision failure (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 0.60) among over 25,000 individuals under community corrections supervision with a history of substance involvement.found that naturalistic hallucinogen use predicted reduced arrest for intimate partner violence (aOR = 0.62) among 302 jail inmates. Though suggestive of protective effects, because hallucinogens are a broader class of substances that includes classic psychedelics in addition to other substances, neithernorwere able to test the unique relationships of classic psychedelics with criminal behavior outcomes. Replication and extension of prior results is merited given the high rates of non-replication of research findings, and also because the magnified political lens surrounding classic psychedelics suggests that rigorous and persuasive results will be required for application in forensic settings. Accordingly, the purpose of the current study was to examine the relationships of lifetime classic psychedelic use with past year criminal behavior using data drawn from the last 13 available years of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) at the time of analysis. Consistent with prior research, the specific relationships of lifetime psilocybin use with past year criminal behavior also was examined to help inform decisions by the United States Food and Drug Administration and regulatory bodies of other nations regarding future approved use. Based on findings from prior research, we hypothesized that lifetime classic psychedelic use and lifetime psilocybin use per se would be associated with a decreased likelihood of past year criminal behavior.
The NSDUH is an annual cross-sectional survey conducted by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. It is designed to estimate the prevalence of substance use and mental illness in the general United States civilian non-institutionalized population (United States Department of. Participants in the present research were adult (≥18 years old) respondents of the NSDUH pooled across years 2002 through 2014 (the maximum number of survey years providing the same variables for analysis; unweighted Ns for all analyses > 480,000). Similar approaches have been employed by five prior investigations evaluating population-level associations of classic psychedelic use with indices of mental health. Detailed information on the NSDUH can be found elsewhere (). The NSDUH survey was approved by the institutional review board of the Research Triangle Institute and the present research was approved by the institutional review board of the University of Alabama at Birmingham.
The measurement of classic psychedelic use followed those of two prior studies. Respondents reporting that they had ever, even once, used ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), LSD, mescaline, peyote or San Pedro, or psilocybin mushrooms (referred to as "psilocybin" hereafter) were coded as positive for lifetime classic psychedelic use, whereas those indicating that they had never used any of these substances were coded as negative (the NSDUH specifically queried lifetime LSD, mescaline, peyote, and psilocybin use, whereas respondents had the opportunity to volunteer lifetime use of ayahuasca, DMT, and San Pedro in open-ended questions). To better identify outcomes associated specifically with psilocybin use, four mutually exclusive groups of respondents were examined: (1) Psilocybin Only (those reporting lifetime use of psilocybin but no other classic psychedelic); (2) Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics (those reporting lifetime use of psilocybin in addition to other classic psychedelics); (3) Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only (those reporting lifetime use of any classic psychedelic with the exception of psilocybin); and (4) No Psychedelics (those reporting no lifetime use of any classic psychedelic substance).
We examined six outcome variables pertaining to criminal behavior, including (1) past year drug distribution ("During the past 12 months, how many times have you sold illegal drugs?"; variable SNYSELL), (2) past year larceny/theft ("During the past 12 months, how many times have you stolen or tried to steal anything worth more than $50?"; variable SNYSTOLE), and (3) past year assault ("During the past 12 months, how many times have you attacked someone with the intent to seriously hurt them?"; variable SNYATTAK). Each of these variables used the following response set: 1 = 0 times, 2 = 1 or 2 times, 3 = 3 to 5 times, 4 = 6 to 9 times, 5 = 10 or more times. Responses were collapsed into three categories (coded 0 = 0 times, 1 = 1 or 2 times, 3 = > 2 times) to maintain the ordinal nature of the measure while improving data scarcity (e.g. even in a sample size as large as ours, very few individuals have assaulted others more than five times in the past year). The NSDUH incorporates a number of yes/no questions regarding past year arrest history ("In the past 12 months, were you arrested and booked for…"), including: "…possession, manufacture, or sale of drugs?" (variable BKDRUG); "…burglary or breaking and entering?" (variable BKBURGL); "…larceny or theft? Do not include motor vehicle theft." (variable BKLARCNY); "…motor vehicle theft?" (variable BKMVTHFT); "…arson?" (BKARSON); "…aggravated assault…forcible rape…murder, homicide, or nonnegligent manslaughter?" (variable BKSRVIOL); "…other assault, such as simple assault or battery?" (variable BKSMASLT); and "…robbery?" (variable BKROB). We condensed these questions into one of three conceptually similar categories, estimating each as a dichotomous outcome. These categories composed our final three outcome variables: (4) past year arrest for a drug-related crime (coded 0 if BKDRUG = no, 1 if response to this variable = yes), (5) past year arrest for a property crime (coded as 0 if variables BKBURGL, BKLARCNY, BKMVTHFT, or BKARSON each = no, 1 if responses to any of these variables = yes), and (6) past year arrest for a violent crime (coded as 0 if variables BKSRVIOL, BKSMASLT, or BKROB each = no, 1 if responses to any of these variables = yes).
The relationships between classic psychedelic use and each of our dependent variables may be confounded by sociodemographic variables, illicit use of other substances, secular changes in both classic psychedelic use and our dependent variables over time, as well as other unmeasured variables. As such, we statistically adjusted for a range of measured variables. All analyses were adjusted for survey year, age in years (dummy coded as, sex (male = 0, female = 1), ethnoracial identity (dummy coded as non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic African American, non-Hispanic Native American/Alaska Native, non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, non-Hispanic Asian, non-Hispanic more than one race, or Hispanic), educational attainment (dummy coded as 5 th grade or less through senior college year or more across 11 categories), annual household income (dummy coded as less than $20,000, $20,000-$49,999, $50,000-$74,999, or $75,000 or more), marital status (dummy coded as married, divorced/separated, widowed, or never married), employment status (dummy coded as full time, part time, unemployed, or other (including those not in the labor force)), self-reported engagement in risky behavior (dummy coded as never, seldom, sometimes, or always), degree to which religious beliefs influence decisions ("Your religious beliefs influence how you make decisions in your life."; dummy coded as strongly disagree, disagree, agree, or strongly agree; one of three interrelated questions on the NSDUH pertaining to religiosity/ spirituality and deemed most relevant to the current analyses), and lifetime illicit use of cocaine, other stimulants, sedatives, tranquilizers, heroin, pain relievers, marijuana, 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)/ecstasy, phencyclidine (PCP), and inhalants (each substance category coded as separate covariates; no lifetime use = 0, lifetime use = 1). These covariates mirror those of prior investigationswith the exception of survey year, employment status, and degree to which religious beliefs influence decisions, which were added to further address sources of possible confounding.
We used generalized ordered logit regression to test the relationships of classic psychedelic use and group membership with past year drug distribution, past year larceny/theft, and past year assault controlling for the covariates listed above. Generalized ordered logit regression relaxes the assumption that the effects of independent variables are proportional across levels of the dependent variable, improving model fit when the proportional odds assumption is violated. For each of these three ordinal outcomes, we first estimated models in which the estimated effects of drug use variables were relaxed while holding the effects of covariates constant across levels of the dependent variable. Based on these results, we tested whether estimated coefficients differed across levels of the dependent variable using Wald tests. We then re-estimated the models, allowing any coefficient found to significantly differ across levels of the dependent variable to vary across said levels, while holding all other coefficients constant. An ordered logit model in which the proportional odds assumption is relaxed for some but not all variables is also known as a partial proportional odds model. Because all variables pertaining to arrest histories were dichotomously coded, we used binomial logistic regression to test the relationships of classic psychedelic use and group membership with past year arrest for a drug-related crime, past year arrest for a property crime, and past year arrest for a violent crime while controlling for the aforementioned covariates. All data management was conducted in SAS 9.4 and all analyses were conducted in STATA 14. Generalized ordered logit regression was performed using the 'gologit2' user written STATA package. All analyses accounted for the complex study design variables, sampling weights, and pooling of data from multiple survey years as recommended by the NSDUH.
Supplemental Tablepresents frequencies of classic psychedelic use and criminal behavior variables. Consistent with prior reports, lifetime classic psychedelic use was reported among approximately 1/7 th of respondents; most respondents fell into the No Psychedelics group, followed by the Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics group, the Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only group, and finally, the Psilocybin Only group. Past year drug distribution, past year larceny/theft, past year assault, past year arrest for a drug-related crime, past year arrest for a property crime, and past year arrest for a violent crime were each infrequent outcomes, with weighted percentages ranging from 0.2 to 1.2. Tablereports weighted descriptive statistics of lifetime classic psychedelic users versus non-lifetime classic psychedelic users. Similar to prior analyses, lifetime classic psychedelic use was concentrated among 26 to 34 year olds and 35 to 49 year olds, but less common among those 50 years of age or older. Furthermore, lifetime classic psychedelic use was more common among men, non-Hispanic Whites and Native Americans/Alaska Natives, those with greater educational attainment and income, those who were divorced/separated or who had never been married, individuals with greater selfreported engagement in risky behavior, and those who reported lifetime illicit use of each of the other substances. Lifetime classic psychedelic use was also more common among employed individuals and those who reported less influence of religious beliefs on their decisions. Though lifetime classic psychedelic use varied by survey year, findings revealed no readily interpretable pattern (results not presented in this report). Tablereports weighted descriptive statistics of the Psilocybin Only, Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics, Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only, and No Psychedelics groups. As shown in the table, the groups differed significantly on all covariates. The Psilocybin Only group tended to be younger, more educated, higher income, and more likely to have never been married than the other three groups. The Psilocybin Only group comprised more men and non-Hispanic Whites than the No Psychedelics and Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only group, but fewer men and non-Hispanic Whites than the Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics group. In addition, the Psilocybin Only group was more likely to be employed than the No Psychedelics group and reported greater engagement in risky behavior and less influence of religious beliefs on their decisions than the No Psychedelics and Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only groups. Finally, the Psilocybin Only group was more likely to report lifetime illicit use of each of the other substances than the No Psychedelics group, but less likely to report lifetime illicit use of each of the other substances than the Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics group. The Psilocybin Only group was more likely to report lifetime illicit use of tranquilizers, pain relievers, marijuana, MDMA/Ecstasy, and inhalants but less likely to report lifetime illicit use of cocaine, other stimulants, sedatives, heroin, and PCP as compared with the Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only group. Group membership also varied by year, but with no obvious pattern (results not presented in this report).
Tablereports results from generalized ordered logistic regression models predicting past year drug distribution, past year larceny/theft, and past year assault. As shown in this table, lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with an increased odds of past year drug distribution one or more times. Results of a Wald test indicated the estimated association between lifetime classic psychedelic use and past year drug distribution differed across levels of the dependent variable and that the association was stronger among individuals who distributed drugs more frequently. Lifetime illicit use of each of the other substances was associated with an increased odds of past year drug distribution, with the exception of lifetime sedative and PCP use, which were not significantly associated with this outcome (both aORs ≥ 1.0). Lifetime classic psychedelic use was also associated with a decreased odds of past year larceny/theft and retained the same association in both models because the effect was assumed to be proportional across levels of the dependent variable. Conversely, lifetime illicit use of each of the other substances was associated with an increased odds of past year larceny/theft, with the exception of lifetime sedative and PCP use, which were not significantly associated with this outcome (both aORs > 1.0). Finally, lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with a decreased odds of past year assault and retained the same association in both models because the effect was assumed to be proportional across levels of the dependent variable. Lifetime illicit use of each of the other substances was associated with an increased odds of past year assault, with the exception of lifetime cocaine, other stimulant, and heroin use, which were not significantly associated with this outcome (all aORs > 1.0). Tablereports results from generalized ordered logistic regression models predicting past year drug distribution, past year larceny/theft, and past year assault as a function of group membership. Relative to the Psilocybin Only group, both the No Psychedelics and Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only groups were less likely to report past year drug distribution. The Psilocybin Only and Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics groups did not differ on this outcome. These effects were assumed to be proportional across levels of the dependent variable. The No Psychedelics group was more likely to report past year larceny/ theft as compared with the Psilocybin Only group, whereas the Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics group was less likely to report past year larceny/theft as compared with the Psilocybin Only group. However, a Wald test indicated that the association of the Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics group with past year larceny/ theft differed across levels of the dependent variable and was significantly stronger among individuals who reported past year larceny/theft more than two times. Consequently, the estimated odds of past year larceny/theft more than two times did not differ between the Psilocybin Only and Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics group. The Psilocybin Only and Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only groups did not differ with regard to past year larceny/theft. Finally, the No Psychedelics group was more likely to report past year assault as compared with the Psilocybin Only group. Neither the Psilocybin & Other Psychedelics nor the Non-Psilocybin Psychedelics Only group differed from the Psilocybin Only group on this outcome. These effects were assumed to be proportional across levels of the dependent variable. Tablereports results from binomial logistic regression models predicting past year arrest for a drug-related crime, past year arrest for a property crime, and past year arrest for a violent crime. Lifetime classic psychedelic use was not associated with past year arrest for a drug-related crime. Lifetime illicit use of each of the other substances was associated with an increased odds of past year arrest for a drug-related crime, with the exception of lifetime other stimulant and sedative use, which were not associated with this outcome (both aORs > 1.0), and lifetime inhalant use, which was associated with a decreased odds of this outcome. Lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with a reduced odds of past year arrest for a property crime. All other lifetime illicit substance use variables were either associated with an increased odds of past year arrest for a property crime (cocaine, tranquilizers, heroin, and pain relievers) or not associated with this outcome (other stimulants, sedatives, MDMA/Ecstasy, PCP, Inhalants; all aORs > 1.0). Finally, lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with a decreased odds of past year arrest for a violent crime. All other lifetime illicit substance use variables were either associated with an increased odds of past year arrest for a violent crime (cocaine, heroin, pain relievers, marijuana, MDMA/Ecstasy) or were not associated with this outcome (other stimulants, sedatives, PCP, inhalants; all but PCP aOR > 1.0). Tablereports results from binomial logistic regression models predicting past year arrest for a drug-related crime, past year arrest for a property crime, and past year arrest for a violent crime as a function of group membership. No significant associations were found.
The aim of the current research was to evaluate the associations of classic psychedelic use, and psilocybin use in particular, with criminal behavior in a large sample generalizable to the United States adult population. In support of hypotheses, lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with a 27% decreased odds of past year larceny/theft, a 12% decreased odds of past year assault, a 22% decreased odds of past year arrest for a property crime, and an 18% decreased odds of past year arrest for a violent crime. Lifetime illicit use of other substances, in contrast, was largely associated with an increased odds of criminal behavior at or above the trend level. These findings are consistent with a growing body of research suggesting classic psychedelics confer enduring psychological and prosocial benefitsand an olderand newerliterature indicating that classic psychedelics may be effective in preventing criminal behavior. The replication and extension of prior results is notable considering that scientific findings often fail to be replicated. It is also noteworthy that whereas other recent studies have examined criminal recidivism, the present findings are based on a non-forensic sample with a majority of individuals who did not report any involvement with the criminal justice system. As such, the current results speak favorably to the generalizability of prior findings with correctional samples. Moreover, results were consistent across the complementary criteria of self-reported criminal behavior and arrest, which suggests that the apparent protective effects of classic psychedelic use are attributable to genuine reductions in antisocial behavior rather than reflecting improved evasion of arrest. Simply put, the positive effects associated with classic psychedelic use appear to be reliable. Acknowledging political hurdles, it is hoped that the current findings will contribute to a compelling rationale for the initiation of clinical research with classic psychedelics among groups at increased risk of engaging in criminal behavior, including released inmates and those engaged in problematic substance use. Given the cost to society and recalcitrance of criminal behavior, the potential represented by this treatment paradigm is significant. However, we feel it is essential to note that, given the intense, sensitive, and personal nature of primary mystical experiences, individual autonomy in the decision to engage in classic psychedelicassisted treatment must be foregrounded, particularly with regard to vulnerable populations. The potential for coercion and undue incentivization in the administration of classic psychedelics to individuals in the criminal justice system is an issue that requires further scrutiny to ensure conformity with the highest possible ethical standards. It is our opinion that classic psychedelic-assisted treatments never be applied in a context that might be perceived as institutionally mandated. Note. For past year drug distribution, parallel slopes not assumed for lifetime classic psychedelic, marijuana, and PCP use. For past year larceny/theft, parallel slopes not assumed for lifetime marijuana and heroin use. For past year assault, parallel slopes not assumed for lifetime sedative, marijuana, MDMA/ecstasy, PCP, and inhalant use. Associations of demographic variables, study year, self-reported engagement in risky behavior, and degree to which religious beliefs influence decisions are not presented. MDMA: 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine; PCP: phencyclidine. Mandated treatments are common in correctional settings, yet are generally ineffective. Moreover, classic psychedelics were administered coercively and/or surreptitiously to unwitting human subjects in 1950s through the 1970s, including to incarcerated samples without therapeutic intent (e.g.. This unfortunate history should serve a strong cautionary tale for future investigations. Contrary to hypotheses, lifetime classic psychedelic use was associated with a 47% to 68% increased odds of past year drug distribution. Lifetime illicit use of almost all other substances was also associated with an increased odds of this outcome. An obvious conclusion, therefore, is that one drug-related crime (use) predicts another (distribution), a contention supported by the research literature (e.g.. Considering that experienced drug users believe that classic psychedelics hold therapeutic potential, it may be that classic psychedelic use is associated with the distribution of classic psychedelics motivated in part by prosocial intention. There is historical precedent for this perspective, for instance, in organizations such as the Brotherhood of Eternal Love, which distributed LSD with the goal of improving the human condition. It could not be determined which specific substances were distributed in the present analyses. However, lifetime classic psychedelic use was not associated with past year arrest for a drug-related crime, whereas lifetime illicit use of almost all other substances was associated with an increased odds of this outcome. Considering that approximately 70% of all drug-related arrests in the United States relate to heroin or cocaine and their derivatives, or marijuana, with arrests relating to classic psychedelics presumably so low that they are not specified, it may be that classic psychedelic use is not associated with past year arrest for a drug-related crime because it largely aligns with possession, use, distribution, or manufacturing of classic psychedelics. In any event, these findings highlight that classic psychedelic use is not associated with a uniform reduction in all behavior deemed criminal. In support of this interpretation, recent survey results suggest that classic psychedelic use is associated with liberal and anti-authoritarian political views. Drug policy is contentious and drug-related crimes are generally not considered antisocial (Global Commission on Drug Policy, 2011;. It would not be surprising, then, if classic psychedelic use were associated with more liberal and anti-authoritarian attitudes toward drug use, as opposed to a more broadly antisocial propensity for transgressive behavior. This also leaves open the possibility that, consistent with contemporary critique of drug policy (Global Commission on Drug Policy, 2011;, the prohibition of classic psychedelics causes harm insofar that it requires users to engage with the black market and risk adverse legal consequences, without in fact reducing antisocial crime. We also hypothesized that lifetime psilocybin use, per se, would be associated with a decreased likelihood of past year criminal behavior. In partial support of hypotheses, those who reported lifetime use of psilocybin but no other classic psychedelic were less likely to report past year larceny/theft and past year assault than those reporting no lifetime use of any classic psychedelic. Contrary to hypotheses, those who reported lifetime use of psilocybin but no other classic psychedelic were more likely to report past year drug distribution than those reporting no lifetime use of any classic psychedelic and those reporting lifetime use of any classic psychedelic with the exception of psilocybin, and more likely to report larceny/theft than those reporting lifetime use of psilocybin in addition to other classic psychedelics. No other differences were found. It is noted that with the exception of past year drug distribution (the implications of which are discussed above), those who reported lifetime use of psilocybin but no other classic psychedelic were less likely to report criminal behavior at or above the trend level as compared with those reporting no lifetime use of any classic psychedelic and those reporting lifetime use of any classic psychedelic with the exception of psilocybin (i.e. all those reporting no lifetime use of psilocybin). Results are therefore consistent with a protective effect of psilocybin for antisocial criminal behavior and suggest clinical investigations making use of this particular agent may hold promise. As described elsewhere, there are a number of limitations of the current methodological design. Response biases inherent in self-report may have obscured the true relationships between classic psychedelic use and criminal behavior. Analyses were restricted to the available data, which preclude evaluating more precise dose-response relationships or associations between classic psychedelic use and specific types of drug distribution, among others. In addition, analyses relied on cross-sectional naturalistic data, which limit causal inferences. Though we attempted to control for multiple sources of potential confounding, a number of shared underlying or "third" variables may be responsible for the associations reported here (e.g. personality openness, spirituality, political orientation;. We also cannot rule out the possibility that classic psychedelic use may have caused harm at the individual level. Classic psychedelic use can aggravate certain mental health conditions and occasion challenging experiences characterized by anxiety, fear, panic, and paranoia. If such harms occurred, they failed to obfuscate population-level associations suggesting protective effects. This is consistent with recent survey data showing that almost 85% of those who have had challenging experiences after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms report benefiting from the experience. Finally, we could not evaluate potential mechanisms of action underlying the associations of classic psychedelic use with criminal behavior. Though speculative, it is possible that mystical-type experiences are typified by awe, an emotion that may promote prosocial behavior via diminishment of the individual self (e.g..
The current study demonstrates that having ever used a classic psychedelic, and to some degree, having ever used psilocybin per se is associated with a decreased likelihood of larceny/theft and other property crimes as well as a decreased likelihood of assault and other violent crimes. These findings, coupled with both older and emerging bodies of evidence suggesting that classic psychedelics may provide enduring benefits for criminal justice populations, compel much-needed clinical research in forensic settings.
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