Substance Use Disorders (SUD)Set & SettingInterpersonal Functioning & Social ConnectednessLSDPsilocybin

Transformative experience and social connectedness mediate the mood-enhancing effects of psychedelic use in naturalistic settings

Across six multiday mass gatherings in the US and UK with over 1,200 participants, psychedelic use was significantly associated with increased positive mood, an effect sequentially mediated by self‑reported transformative experiences and heightened social connectedness. These relationships remained after controlling for demographics and other psychoactive substances and were particularly pronounced for use within the preceding 24 hours.

Authors

  • Matthias Forstmann

Published

PNAS
individual Study

Abstract

Past research suggests that use of psychedelic substances such as LSD or psilocybin may have positive effects on mood and feelings of social connectedness. These psychological effects are thought to be highly sensitive to context, but robust and direct evidence for them in a naturalistic setting is scarce. In a series of field studies involving over 1,200 participants across six multiday mass gatherings in the United States and the United Kingdom, we investigated the effects of psychedelic substance use on transformative experience, social connectedness, and positive mood. This approach allowed us to test preregistered hypotheses with high ecological validity and statistical precision. Controlling for a host of demographic variables and the use of other psychoactive substances, we found that psychedelic substance use was significantly associated with positive mood—an effect sequentially mediated by self-reported transformative experience and increased social connectedness. These effects were particularly pronounced for those who had taken psychedelic substances within the last 24 h (compared to the last week). Overall, this research provides robust evidence for positive affective and social consequences of psychedelic substance use in naturalistic settings.

Available with Blossom Pro

Research Summary of 'Transformative experience and social connectedness mediate the mood-enhancing effects of psychedelic use in naturalistic settings'

Introduction

Forstmann and colleagues situate their study within a renewed scientific interest in the therapeutic and psychological effects of serotonergic psychedelics (for example, psilocybin and LSD). They note that controlled laboratory work and large-scale surveys have reported positive effects on mood, well-being and social attitudes, but that both approaches have limitations: laboratory studies often have small samples and artificial settings that do not reflect typical use, while retrospective surveys risk recall bias and demand effects. The authors emphasise the importance of "set and setting"—the influence of intrapersonal and environmental context on psychedelic effects—and argue that evidence from naturalistic settings is scarce and needed to understand how these substances affect mood and social connectedness in everyday use. To address this gap, the study asked whether recent psychedelic use at multiday mass gatherings predicts positive mood and whether two psychological processes—self-reported transformative experience (TE) and increased social connectedness—explain that relationship. The researchers preregistered hypotheses and designed a field study to compare very recent (past 24 h) versus moderately recent (past week) psychedelic use, while controlling for use of other psychoactive substances and demographic covariates, thereby aiming to capture acute and postacute effects with greater ecological validity than prior work.

Expert Research Summaries

Go Pro to access AI-powered section-by-section summaries, editorial takes, and the full research toolkit.

See Pro PlansAlready have an account? Sign in

Study Details

References (17)

Papers cited by this study that are also in Blossom

Effects of Schedule I drug laws on neuroscience research and treatment innovation

King, C., Nichols, D. E. · Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2013)

Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: A population study.

Johansen, P. Ø., Krebs, T. S. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2015)

Classic hallucinogens in the treatment of addictions

Bogenschutz, M. P., Johnson, M. W. · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry (2016)

Safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases

Gasser, P., Holstein, D., Michel, Y. et al. · Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (2014)

594 cited
Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial

Palhano-Fontes, F., Barreto, D., Onias, H. et al. · Psychological Medicine (2018)

Effects of serotonin 2A/1A receptor stimulation on social exclusion processing

Preller, K. H., Pokorny, D., Hock, A. et al. · PNAS (2016)

Effect of psilocybin on empathy and moral decision-making

Pokorny, T., Preller, K. H., Kometer, M. et al. · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology (2017)

155 cited
Lifetime experience with (classic) psychedelics predicts pro-environmental behavior through an increase in nature relatedness

Forstmann, M., Sagioglou, C. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2017)

134 cited
Constructing drug effects: a history of set and setting

Hartogsohn, I. · Drug Science Policy and Law (2017)

389 cited
Psilocybin-occasioned mystical-type experience in combination with meditation and other spiritual practices produces enduring positive changes in psychological functioning and in trait measures of prosocial attitudes and behaviors

Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Richards, W. A. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2017)

393 cited
Show all 17 references
Ego-dissolution and psychedelics: validation of the ego-dissolution inventory (EDI)

Nour, M. R., Evans, J., Nutt, D. J. et al. · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (2016)

Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later

Griffiths, R. R. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2008)

Mystical experiences occasioned by the hallucinogen psilocybin lead to increases in the personality domain of openness

Maclean, K. A., Johnson, M. W., Griffiths, R. R. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2011)

Quality of acute psychedelic experience predicts therapeutic efficacy of psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression

Roseman, L., Nutt, D. J., Carhart-Harris, R. L. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2018)

Patients’ accounts of increased “Connectedness” and “Acceptance” after psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression

Watts, R., Day, C. M., Krzanowski, J. et al. · Journal of Humanistic Psychology (2017)

Psychedelics and connectedness

Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Haijen, E. C. H. M. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2017)

The relationships of classic psychedelic use with criminal behavior in the United States adult population

Hendricks, P. S., Crawford, M. S., Cropsey, K. L. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2017)

Cited By (39)

Papers in Blossom that reference this study

Therapeutic-Like Context and Relational Support During Psychedelic Use Moderate Links Among Stress, Challenging Experiences, and Psychological Outcomes

Cherniak, A. D., Granqvist, P., Mikulincer, M. et al. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2026)

Prediction of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder and thought disturbance symptoms following psychedelic use

Zhou, K., De Wied, D., Carhart-Harris, R. L. et al. · PNAS (2025)

Dissociable effects of LSD and MDMA on striato-cortical connectivity in healthy subjects

Ertl, N., Ashraf, I., Azizi, L. et al. · Biorxiv (2025)

Perceived changes in mental health and social engagement attributed to a single psychedelic experience in autistic adults: results from an online survey

Stroud, J., Rice, C., Orsini, A. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2024)

Clinically relevant acute subjective effects of psychedelics beyond mystical experience

Yaden, D. B., Goldy, S. P., Weiss, B. et al. · Nature Reviews Psychology (2024)

Longitudinal associations between psychedelic use and meditation practices in the United States and the United Kingdom

Simonsson, O., Osika, W., Stenfors, C. U. D. et al. · Psychological Medicine (2023)

Psilocybin therapy for females with anorexia nervosa: a phase 1, open-label feasibility study

Peck, S. K., Shao, S., Grue, T. et al. · Nature Medicine (2023)

Therapeutic mechanisms of psychedelics and entactogens

Heifets, B. D., Olson, D. E. · Neuropsychopharmacology (2023)

Effect of LSD and music on the time-varying brain dynamics

Adamska, I., Finc, K. · Psychopharmacology (2023)

7 cited
The Canadian Psychedelic Survey: Characteristics, Patterns of Use, and Access in a Large Sample of People Who Use Psychedelic Drugs

Lake, S., Lucas, P. · Psychedelic Medicine (2023)

Show all 39 papers
Examining the Therapeutic Effect of Ceremonial Ayahuasca on Narcissistic Personality and Antagonistic Externalizing in Adults

Weiss, B., Sleep, C., Miller, J. D. et al. · Journal of Personality Disorders (2023)

Psychedelics and psychological strengths

Brasher, T., Rosen, D., Spinella, M. · International Journal of Wellbeing (2023)

Among psychedelic-experienced users, only past use of psilocybin reliably predicts nature relatedness

Forstmann, M., Kettner, H. S., Sagioglou, C. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2023)

Journeying to Ixtlan: Ethics of Psychedelic Medicine and Research for Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias

Peterson, A., Largent, E. A., Sisti, D. et al. · AJOB Neuroscience (2022)

Self-Entropic Broadening Theory: Toward a New Understanding of Self and Behavior Change Informed by Psychedelics and Psychosis

Dourron, H. M., Strauss, C., Hendricks, P. S. · Pharmacological Reviews (2022)

Awe as a Pathway to Mental and Physical Health

Monroy, M., Keltner, D. · Perspectives on Psychological Science (2022)

106 cited
The Watts Connectedness Scale: a new scale for measuring a sense of connectedness to self, others, and world

Watts, R., Kettner, H., Gandy, S. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2022)

A Dose of Creativity: An Integrative Review of the Effects of Serotonergic Psychedelics on Creativity

Costa, M. A. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2022)

Pharmacological, Neural, and Psychological Mechanisms underlying Psychedelics: A Critical Review

van Elk, M., Yaden, D. B. · Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews (2022)

Group VR experiences can produce ego attenuation and connectedness comparable to psychedelics

Glowacki, D. R., Wonnacott, M. D., Freire, R. et al. · Scientific Reports (2022)

31 cited
New insights into the clinical and nonclinical effects of psychedelic substances: An integrative review.

Forstmann, M., Sagioglou, C. · European Psychologist (2022)

Psilocybin-Assisted Compassion Focused Therapy for Depression

Pots, W., Chakhssi, F. · Frontiers in Psychology (2022)

Effects of Naturalistic Psychedelic Use on Depression, Anxiety, and Well-Being: Associations With Patterns of Use, Reported Harms, and Transformative Mental States

Raison, C. L., Jain, R., Jain, S. et al. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2022)

59 cited
Recreational Psychedelic Users Frequently Encounter Complete Mystical Experiences: Trip Content and Implications for Wellbeing

Qiu, X., Minda, J. P. · Psyarxiv (2021)

5 cited
Examining Psychedelic-Induced Changes in Social Functioning and Connectedness in a Naturalistic Online Sample Using the Five-Factor Model of Personality

Nygart, V., Pommerencke, L. M., Carhart-Harris, R. L. et al. · Frontiers in Psychology (2021)

Moral Psychopharmacology Needs Moral Inquiry: The Case of Psychedelics

Earp, B. D., Repantis, D., Langlitz, N. et al. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2021)

28 cited
Psychedelics alter metaphysical beliefs

Timmermann, C., Kettner, H., Letheby, C. et al. · Scientific Reports (2021)

Relational Processes in Ayahuasca Groups of Palestinians and Israelis

Roseman, L., Ron, Y., Saca, A. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2021)

30 cited
Set and Setting in the Santo Daime

Hartogsohn, I. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2021)

Effects of psilocybin microdosing on awe and aesthetic experiences: a preregistered field and lab-based study

Van Elk, M., Fejer, G., Lempe, P. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2021)

42 cited
Can pragmatic research, real-world data and digital technologies aid the development of psychedelic medicine?

Carhart-Harris, R. L., Wagner, A. C., Agrawal, M. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2021)

40 cited
Psychedelic Communitas: Intersubjective experience during psychedelic group sessions predicts enduring changes in psychological wellbeing and social connectedness

Kettner, H., Rosas, F. E., Timmermann, C. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2021)

157 cited
Psychedelic Experiences and Mindfulness are Associated with Improved Wellbeing

Qiu, T. T., Minda, J. P. · Psyarxiv (2021)

How psychedelic researchers’ self-admitted substance use and their association with psychedelic culture affect people’s perceptions of their scientific integrity and the quality of their research

Forstmann, M., Sagioglou, C. · Public Understanding of Science (2020)

26 cited
Psilocybin-Assisted Group Therapy and Attachment: Observed Reduction in Attachment Anxiety and Influences of Attachment Insecurity on the Psilocybin Experience

Stauffer, C., Anderson, B. T., Ortigo, K. M. et al. · ACS Pharmacology and Translational Science (2020)

51 cited
Psychedelics and Psychotherapy

Nayak, S., Johnson, M. W. · Pharmacopsychiatry (2020)

The potential synergistic effects between psychedelic administration and nature contact for the improvement of mental health

Gandy, S., Forstmann, M., Carhart-Harris, R. L. et al. · Health Psychology Open (2020)

Psilocybin-assisted group therapy for demoralized older long-term AIDS survivor men: An open-label safety and feasibility pilot study

Anderson, B. T., Danforth, A. L., Daroff, R. et al. · EClinicalMedicine (2020)

212 cited
Post-Psychedelic Reductions in Experiential Avoidance Are Associated With Decreases in Depression Severity and Suicidal Ideation

Zeifman, R. J., Wagner, A. C., Watts, R. et al. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2020)

82 cited

Your Personal Research Library

Go Pro to save papers, add notes, rate studies, and organize your research into custom shelves.

See Pro PlansSign in
Transformative experience and social... — Research Summary & Context | Blossom