Psychedelic Communitas: Intersubjective experience during psychedelic group sessions predicts enduring changes in psychological wellbeing and social connectedness
The authors validate an adapted Communitas Scale (α = 0.92) for measuring acute relational togetherness in guided psychedelic ceremonies and show it has good construct validity. Higher ceremony communitas predicted enduring increases in psychological wellbeing and social connectedness, an effect mediated by retreat-level communitas and supported by self-disclosure, participant–facilitator rapport and perceived emotional support.
Authors
- Fernando Rosas
- Robin Carhart-Harris
- Christopher Timmermann
Published
Abstract
Background
Recent years have seen a resurgence of research on the potential of psychedelic substances to treat addictive and mood disorders. Historically and contemporarily, psychedelic studies have emphasized the importance of contextual elements ('set and setting') in modulating acute drug effects, and ultimately, influencing long-term outcomes. Nevertheless, current small-scale clinical and laboratory studies have tended to bypass a ubiquitous contextual feature of naturalistic psychedelic use: its social dimension. This study introduces and psychometrically validates an adaptedCommunitas Scale,assessing acute relational experiences of perceived togetherness and shared humanity, in order to investigate psychosocial mechanisms pertinent to psychedelic ceremonies and retreats.
Methods
In this observational, web-based survey study, participants (N= 886) were measured across five successive time-points: 2 weeks before, hours before, and the day after a psychedelic ceremony; as well as the day after, and 4 weeks after leaving the ceremony location. Demographics, psychological traits and state variables were assessed pre-ceremony, in addition to changes in psychological wellbeing and social connectedness from before to after the retreat, as primary outcomes. Using correlational and multiple regression (path) analyses, predictive relationships between psychosocial 'set and setting' variables, communitas, and long-term outcomes were explored.
Results
The adapted Communitas Scale demonstrated substantial internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.92) and construct validity in comparison with validated measures of intra-subjective (visual, mystical, challenging experiences questionnaires) and inter-subjective (perceived emotional synchrony, identity fusion) experiences. Furthermore, communitas during ceremony was significantly correlated with increases in psychological wellbeing (r= 0.22), social connectedness (r= 0.25), and other salient mental health outcomes. Path analyses revealed that the effect of ceremony-communitas on long-term outcomes was fully mediated by communitas experienced in reference to the retreat overall, and that the extent of personal sharing or ‘self-disclosure’ contributed to this process. A positive relationship between participants and facilitators, and the perceived impact of emotional support, facilitated the emergence of communitas.
Conclusion
Highlighting the importance of intersubjective experience, rapport, and emotional support for long-term outcomes of psychedelic use, this first quantitative examination of psychosocial factors in guided psychedelic settings is a significant step toward evidence-based benefit-maximization guidelines for collective psychedelic use.
Research Summary of 'Psychedelic Communitas: Intersubjective experience during psychedelic group sessions predicts enduring changes in psychological wellbeing and social connectedness'
Introduction
Kettner and colleagues situate their work in the context of a renewed scientific interest in psychedelic serotonin 2A receptor agonists and a long-standing recognition that 'set and setting'—psychological and environmental context—shape acute drug effects and longer-term outcomes. They note that contemporary clinical research has largely focused on individually delivered, highly controlled treatments, thereby neglecting the social dimension that characterises much naturalistic psychedelic use (for example, ritual ceremonies, retreats, raves, and ayahuasca contexts). Drawing on anthropological and social-psychological concepts such as collective effervescence, identity fusion, and Victor Turner’s notion of spontaneous communitas (an intense experience of togetherness and equality occurring in liminal rituals), the authors argue that intersubjective processes during group psychedelic sessions may play an important role in enduring changes in wellbeing and social connectedness, but that quantitative instruments and longitudinal data to test this are lacking. The present study therefore set out to develop and psychometrically validate an adapted Communitas Scale (COMS) tailored to psychedelic group experiences, and to examine whether acute communitas predicts longer-term changes in psychological wellbeing and social connectedness. Using a large prospective web-based sample of retreat participants, the investigators planned correlational analyses and longitudinal path modelling to examine relationships among baseline traits (e.g. absorption), pre-session relational variables (e.g. rapport, identity fusion), acute intra- and intersubjective experiences (e.g. mystical, synchrony, communitas), and psychological outcomes measured up to 4 weeks post-retreat. The aim was both to validate the instrument and to map psychosocial 'set and setting' pathways linking group experience to enduring psychosocial change.
Expert Research Summaries
Go Pro to access AI-powered section-by-section summaries, editorial takes, and the full research toolkit.
Full Text PDF
Full Paper PDF
Create a free account to open full-text PDFs.
Study Details
- Study Typeindividual
- Journal
- Topics
- Authors
- APA Citation
Kettner, H., Rosas, F. E., Timmermann, C., Kärtner, L., Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Roseman, L. (2021). Psychedelic Communitas: Intersubjective experience during psychedelic group sessions predicts enduring changes in psychological wellbeing and social connectedness. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.623985
References (57)
Papers cited by this study that are also in Blossom
Alper, K. R., Lotsof, H. S., Kaplan, C. D. · Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2007)
Barrett, F. S., Bradstreet, M. P., Leoutsakos, J. M. S. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2016)
Barrett, F. S., Johnson, M. W., Griffiths, R. R. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2015)
Bogenschutz, M. P., Forcehimes, A. A., Pommy, J. A. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2015)
Bouso, J. C., González, D., Fondevila, S. et al. · PLOS ONE (2012)
Carhart-Harris, R. L. · World Psychiatry (2018)
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Bolstridge, M., Rucker, J. et al. · Lancet Psychiatry (2016)
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Haijen, E. C. H. M. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2017)
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Friston, K. J. · Pharmacological Reviews (2019)
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Kaelen, M., Whalley, M. G. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2014)
Show all 57 referencesShow fewer
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Shanahan, M. et al. · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (2014)
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Roseman, L., Haijen, E. C. H. M. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2018)
Doering-Silveira, E., Grob, C. S., Dobkin de Rios, M. et al. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2005)
Dolder, P. C., Schmid, Y., Müller, F. et al. · Neuropsychopharmacology (2016)
Forstmann, M., Yudkin, D. A., Prosser, A. M. B. et al. · PNAS (2020)
Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2016)
Grob, C. S., Danforth, A. L., Chopra, G. S. et al. · JAMA Psychiatry (2011)
Haijen, E. C. H. M., Kaelen, M., Roseman, L. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2018)
Hartogsohn, I. · Drug Science Policy and Law (2017)
Hartogsohn, I. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2016)
Hartogsohn, I. · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (2018)
Hutten, N. P. W., Mason, N. L., Dolder, P. C. et al. · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology (2019)
Johnson, M. W., Garcia-Romeu, A., Cosimano, M. P. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2014)
Kaelen, M., Giribaldi, B., Raine, J. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2018)
Kelly, J. R., Crockett, M. T., Alexander, L. et al. · Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine (2020)
Kettner, H., Gandy, S., Haijen, E. C. H. M. et al. · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (2019)
Kuypers, K. P. C., Riba, &. J., De La Fuente Revenga, &. M. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2016)
Leary, T., Litwin, G. H., Metzner, R. · Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (1977)
Lewis, S. E. · AnthroSource (2008)
Loizaga-Velder, A., Verres, R. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2014)
Lyons, T., Carhart-Harris, R. L. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2018)
Maclean, K. A., Johnson, M. W., Griffiths, R. R. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2011)
Mason, N. L., Kuypers, K. P. C. · Journal of Psychedelic Studies (2018)
Mason, N. L., Mischler, E., Uthaug, M. V. et al. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2019)
Murphy-Beiner, A., Soar, K. · Psychopharmacology (2020)
Nichols, C. D., Nichols, D. E., Johnson, M. W. · Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics (2016)
Nour, M. R., Evans, J., Carhart-Harris, R. L. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2017)
Palhano-Fontes, F., Barreto, D., Onias, H. et al. · Psychological Medicine (2018)
Pokorny, T., Preller, K. H., Kometer, M. et al. · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology (2017)
Preller, K. H., Pokorny, D., Hock, A. et al. · PNAS (2016)
Roseman, L., Haijen, E. C. H. M., Idialu-Ikato, K. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2019)
Roseman, L., Nutt, D. J., Carhart-Harris, R. L. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2018)
Roseman, L., Ron, Y., Saca, A. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2021)
Ross, S., Bossis, A. P., Guss, J. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2016)
Schenberg, E. E. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2018)
Elices, M., Soler, J., Domínguez-Clavé, E. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2018)
Soler, J., Elices, M., Franquesa, A. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2015)
Spriggs, M. J., Kettner, •. H., Carhart-Harris, •. R. L. · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity (2020)
Studerus, E., Gamma, A., Kometer, M. et al. · PLOS ONE (2012)
Studerus, E., Gamma, A., Vollenweider, F. X. · PLOS ONE (2010)
Thomas, G., Lucas, P., Rielle Capler, N. et al. · Current Drug Abuse Reviews (2013)
Timmermann, C., Watts, R., Dupuis, D. · Transcultural Psychiatry (2022)
Trope, A., Anderson, B. T., Hooker, A. R. et al. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2019)
Uthaug, M. V., Van Oorsouw, &. K., Kuypers, &. K. P. C. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2018)
Uthaug, M. V., Lancelotta, R., van Oorsouw, K. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2019)
Watts, R., Day, C. M., Krzanowski, J. et al. · Journal of Humanistic Psychology (2017)
Zeifman, R. J., Wagner, A. C., Watts, R. et al. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2020)
Cited By (54)
Papers in Blossom that reference this study
O’Mahony, B., Harrington, C., Harkin, A. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2026)
Cherniak, A. D., Granqvist, P., Mikulincer, M. et al. · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (2026)
Back, A. L., McGregor, B. A., Thorn, L. L. et al. · Psychedelic Medicine (2026)
Blest-Hopley, G., Pasculli, G., Ruffell, S. G. D. et al. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2025)
Calnan, M., Blest-Hopley, G., Busch, C. et al. · Brain and Behavior (2025)
Roseby, W., Kettner, H., Roseman, L. et al. · Frontiers in Psychology (2025)
Zhou, K., De Wied, D., Carhart-Harris, R. L. et al. · PNAS (2025)
Stoliker, D., Novelli, L., Khajehnejad, M. et al. · Biorxiv (2025)
Agnorelli, C., Spriggs, M. J., Godfrey, K. et al. · Preprints (2024)
O'Donnell, K., Okano, L., Alpert, M. et al. · Frontiers in Psychology (2024)
Show all 54 papersShow fewer
Kettner, H., Roseman, L., Gazzaley, A. et al. · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry (2024)
Levin, A. W., Lancelotta, R., Sepeda, N. D. et al. · PLOS ONE (2024)
Weiss, B., Leor Roseman, •., Giribaldi, B. et al. · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (2024)
Marrocu, A., Kettner, H., Weiss, B. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2024)
Barba, T., Kettne, H., Radu, C. et al. · Scientific Reports (2024)
Siva, J. B., Barba, T., Kettner, H. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2024)
Zeifman, R. J., Kettner, H., Ross, S. et al. · European Journal of Psychotraumatology (2024)
Borkel, L. F., Rojas-Hernández, J., Henríquez-Hernández, L. A. et al. · Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology (2023)
Bremler, R., Katati, N., Shergill, P. et al. · Scientific Reports (2023)
Zeifman, R. J., Kettner, H., Pagni, B. A. et al. · Scientific Reports (2023)
Zeifman, R. J., Wagner, A. C., Monson, C. M. et al. · Journal of Affective Disorders (2023)
Noorani, T. N., Bedi, G., Muthukumaraswamy, S. · Psychological Medicine (2023)
Pronovost-Morgan, C., Hartogsohn, I., Ramaekers, J. G. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2023)
Mccrone, P., Fisher, H., Knight, C. et al. · Psychological Medicine (2023)
Michael, P., Luke, D., Robinson, O. · Frontiers in Psychology (2023)
Turkia, M. · Psyarxiv (2023)
Nikolaidis, A., Lancelotta, R., Gukasyan, N. et al. · Journal of Affective Disorders (2023)
Brasher, T., Rosen, D., Spinella, M. · International Journal of Wellbeing (2023)
Bohn, A., Kiggen, M. H. H., Uthaug, M. V. et al. · International Journal for the Psychology of Religion (2022)
Giribaldi, B., Lyons, T., Rosas, F. E. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2022)
Dourron, H. M., Strauss, C., Hendricks, P. S. · Pharmacological Reviews (2022)
Watts, R., Kettner, H., Gandy, S. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2022)
Nygart, V., Pommerencke, L. M., Haijen, E. et al. · Journal of Psychopharmacology (2022)
van Elk, M., Yaden, D. B. · Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews (2022)
Pontual, A. A. D. D., Tófoli, L. F., Corradi-Webster, C. M. et al. · Frontiers in Psychology (2022)
Bonnelle, V., Cavarra, M., Kryskow, P. et al. · British Journal of Pain (2022)
Belser, A. B. · Frontiers in Psychology (2022)
Glowacki, D. R., Wonnacott, M. D., Freire, R. et al. · Scientific Reports (2022)
Murphy, R., Murphy-Beiner, A., Kettner, H. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2022)
Balaet, M. · Frontiers in Neuroscience (2022)
McCulloch, D. E-W., Madsen, M. K., Jensen, P. S. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2022)
Sekula, A. D., Downey, L., Puspanathan, P. · Frontiers in Psychology (2022)
Golden, T. L., Magsamen, S., Sandu, C. C. et al. · Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences (2022)
Dursun, S. M., Kelly, J. R., Gillan, C. M. et al. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2021)
Rieser, N. M., Herdener, M. ;., Preller, K. H. · Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences (2021)
Arnaud, K. O. S. · Drugs Education Prevention and Policy (2021)
Whitfield, H. J. · Frontiers in Psychiatry (2021)
Nygart, V., Pommerencke, L. M., Carhart-Harris, R. L. et al. · Frontiers in Psychology (2021)
Dupuis, D. · Frontiers in Psychology (2021)
Kuc, J., Kettner, H., Rosas, F. E. et al. · Psychopharmacology (2021)
Rodríguez Arce, J. M., Winkelman, M. J. · Frontiers in Psychology (2021)
Callon, C., Williams, M., Lafrance, A. · Journal of Humanistic Psychology (2021)
Timmermann, C., Kettner, H., Letheby, C. et al. · Scientific Reports (2021)
Roseman, L., Ron, Y., Saca, A. et al. · Frontiers in Pharmacology (2021)
Your Personal Research Library
Go Pro to save papers, add notes, rate studies, and organize your research into custom shelves.